Fig. 6.

Prediction of innate and adaptive immune responses induced by the ZL12138L vaccine simulated by the C-ImmSim server. We conducted a simulation of three immunizations with the ZL12138L vaccine to predict the innate and adaptive immune responses. (A) NK cell population (cells per mm³). This plot shows the total number of NK cells over time post-vaccination, indicating the fluctuations in NK cell activation. (B) Macrophage population per state (cells per mm³). The plot categorizes macrophages into internalized, presenting (two states), and resting states, along with the total population, demonstrating the role of macrophages in antigen processing and presentation. (C) Dendritic cell (DC) population per state (cells per mm³). DCs are shown in internalized, presenting (two states), and resting states, along with the total population, highlighting their involvement in immune activation. (D) Epithelial cell population per state (cells per mm³). This plot illustrates the total, active, presenting, and actively infected states of epithelial cells, providing insights into the epithelial response post-vaccination. (E) B cell population per state (cells per mm³). The distribution of B cells in internalized, presenting, active, duplicating, and anergic states, depicting the dynamics of B cell activation and antibody production. (F) Total B cell population (cells per mm³). The total B cell count over time, including B memory cells and immunoglobulin levels (IgM, IgG1, and IgG2), reflecting the humoral immune response to the vaccine. (G) T helper (TH) cell population (cells per mm³). The total TH cell count, including non-memory and memory TH cells, showing the evolution of helper T cells post-immunization. (H) TH cell population per state (cells per mm³). Distribution of TH cells in active, resting, duplicating, and anergic states, providing insights into different stages of TH cell activation and function. (I) Cytotoxic T (TC) cell population (cells per mm³). Total TC cell count, including non-memory and memory TC cells, indicating the cytotoxic response elicited by the vaccine. (J) TC cell population per state (cells per mm³). The state-wise distribution of TC cells into active, resting, duplicating, and anergic states, reflecting different functional phases of cytotoxic T cells. (K) Changes in each subtype of helper T cells (cells per mm³). Dynamics of various TH cell subtypes (TH0, TH1, TH2, TH17, and Treg) over time, highlighting their respective roles in orchestrating the immune response. (L) Cytokine concentration (ng/mL). Changes in cytokine levels induced by the ZL12138L vaccine, showcasing the cytokine environment and immune signaling pathways activated during the immune response.

Abbreviations: DC, dendritic cell; NK, natural killer; TH, T helper.