Table 3.

Clinical studies using patient‐derived organoids for in vitro cell sensitivity drug screening guided therapy (Abbreviations: No, number; GFR, growth‐factor reduced; S, sensitivity; Sp, specificity; NPV, negative predictive value; PPV, positive predictive value)

Cancer type	No. of patients	No. of drugs	Culture format	Bioink/scaffold	No. of cells per volume of bioink	Success rate of in vitro expansion	Concordance with clinical response	Ref
Uterine carcinosarcoma, endometrial adenocarcinoma & colorectal cancer	4	≈160 drugs for 2D culture. Top hits for 3D culture	Cells embedded in the bioink	GFR‐ Matrigel	1000–3000 cells per 10 µL bioink	38.6 %	Yes	[124]
Pediatric cancers	17	111	2D culture, spheroids	None (scaffold‐free)	1000–4000 cells per well	50 %	Yes (4/5 patients, predictive value 80 %)	[126]
Colorectal and gastroesophageal	71	55	Cells embedded in the bioink	GFR‐ Matrigel	4500–6000 cells in 30 µL bioink	71 %	Yes (S 100 %, Sp 93 %, PPV 88 %, and NPV 100 %)	[135]
Rectal cancer	80	Irradiation and 2 drugs	Cells embedded in the bioink	Matrigel	200 ± 50 organoids in 15 µL bioink	85 %	Yes (Sp 92 %, S 79 %, Accuracy 84 %)	[139]
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma	138	26	Cells embedded in the bioink	Matrigel	500 cells in 20 µL bioink	75 %	Yes, with drug‐specific exceptions	[138]