Table 2. Excess numbers and fractions of violence cases attributable to PM2.5 and non-compliance with the current WHO air quality guidelines, NAAQS in the United States, and KAS in South Korea.
WHO: World Health Organization, NAAQS: National Ambient Air Quality Standards. KAS: Korean Air Quality Standards. We classified the study districts (si/gun/gu) into urban (si and gu) and rural (gun) districts. GRDP High and Low areas are separated by a median value.
| Excess numbers (%) | Excess fractions (%) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total season | Total population | Whole PM 2.5 | 416.58 | (130.21, 657.14) | 14.53 | (4.54, 22.92) |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 184.08 | (56.38, 294.19) | 6.42 | (1.97, 10.26) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 31.77 | (9.79, 50.62) | 1.11 | (0.34, 1.77) | ||
| Males | Whole PM 2.5 | 299.36 | (47.45, 508.15) | 15.45 | (2.45, 26.23) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 133.77 | (20.66, 230.69) | 6.91 | (1.07, 11.91) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 24.78 | (3.86, 42.61) | 1.28 | (0.2, 2.2) | ||
| Females | Whole PM 2.5 | 109.89 | (-73.94, 263.35) | 11.82 | (-7.95, 28.32) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 48.00 | (-30.78, 117.54) | 5.16 | (-3.31, 12.64) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 6.95 | (-4.54, 16.94) | 0.75 | (-0.49, 1.82) | ||
| 0–64 years | Whole PM 2.5 | 372.77 | (96.33, 601.02) | 14.01 | (3.62, 22.59) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 164.74 | (41.68, 269.15) | 6.19 | (1.57, 10.12) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 28.39 | (7.23, 46.24) | 1.07 | (0.27, 1.74) | ||
| 65 years or older | Whole PM 2.5 | 47.34 | (-49.18, 101.25) | 22.87 | (-23.76, 48.91) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 21.53 | (-20.27, 47.8) | 10.4 | (-9.79, 23.09) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 3.79 | (-3.75, 8.5) | 1.83 | (-1.81, 4.1) | ||
| Urban | Whole PM 2.5 | 320.17 | (62.91, 581.01) | 12.47 | (2.45, 22.63) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 142.23 | (27.37, 261.99) | 5.54 | (1.07, 10.2) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 25.26 | (4.9, 46.33) | 0.98 | (0.19, 1.8) | ||
| Rural | Whole PM 2.5 | 103.97 | (10.83, 166.89) | 34.77 | (3.62, 55.82) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 45.48 | (4.35, 76.58) | 15.21 | (1.45, 25.61) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 5.89 | (0.55, 10.04) | 1.97 | (0.18, 3.36) | ||
| GRDP High | Whole PM 2.5 | 173.77 | (-13.89, 337.93) | 13.25 | (-2.37, 25.78) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 80.07 | (-13.89, 158.09) | 6.11 | (-1.06, 12.06) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 15.91 | (-2.79, 31.3) | 1.21 | (-0.21, 2.39) | ||
| GRDP Low | Whole PM 2.5 | 237.09 | (19.08, 419.70) | 15.24 | (1.23, 26.97) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 101.05 | (7.86, 182.56) | 6.49 | (0.51, 11.73) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 14.67 | (1.15, 26.44) | 0.94 | (0.07, 1.70) | ||
| Warm seasons | Total population | Whole PM 2.5 | 139.75 | (-147.1, 368.71) | 9.02 | (-9.50, 23.8) |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 51.49 | (-50.94, 138.47) | 3.32 | (-3.29, 8.94) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 3.63 | (-3.48, 9.84) | 0.23 | (-0.22, 0.64) | ||
| Males | Whole PM 2.5 | 123.20 | (-92.84, 297.97) | 11.73 | (-8.84, 28.38) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 45.12 | (-31.82, 111.92) | 4.3 | (-3.03, 10.66) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 3.32 | (-2.29, 8.32) | 0.32 | (-0.22, 0.79) | ||
| Females | Whole PM 2.5 | 25.46 | (-146.19, 160.04) | 5.10 | (-29.3, 32.07) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 10.55 | (-49.79, 63.25) | 2.11 | (-9.98, 12.67) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 0.72 | (-2.99, 4.22) | 0.14 | (-0.6, 0.85) | ||
| 0–64 years | Whole PM 2.5 | 176.21 | (-72.62, 398.96) | 12.28 | (-5.06, 27.8) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 64.94 | (-25.31, 151.04) | 4.53 | (-1.76, 10.53) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 4.60 | (-1.75, 10.82) | 0.32 | (-0.12, 0.75) | ||
| 65 years or older | Whole PM 2.5 | -57.79 | (-249.01, 35.07) | -50.7 | (-218.43, 30.76) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | -17.19 | (-67.45, 14.07) | -15.08 | (-59.16, 12.35) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | -0.95 | (-3.47, 0.99) | -0.84 | (-3.04, 0.87) | ||
| Urban | Whole PM 2.5 | 86.13 | (-186.27, 305.19) | 6.22 | (-13.45, 22.04) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 32.21 | (-64.47, 114.98) | 2.33 | (-4.65, 8.3) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 2.26 | (-4.34, 8.09) | 0.16 | (-0.31, 0.58) | ||
| Rural | Whole PM 2.5 | 51.30 | (-28.18, 103.46) | 31.28 | (-17.18, 63.08) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 19.27 | (-9.00, 41.67) | 11.75 | (-5.49, 25.41) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 1.47 | (-0.68, 3.19) | 0.89 | (-0.42, 1.95) | ||
| GRDP High | Whole PM 2.5 | 68.28 | (-114.45, 212.04) | 9.84 | (-16.49, 30.55) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 26.34 | (-40.42, 83.08) | 3.79 | (-5.82, 11.97) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 2.34 | (-3.46, 7.42) | 0.34 | (-0.50, 1.07) | ||
| GRDP Low | Whole PM 2.5 | 75.04 | (-128.23, 241.67) | 8.78 | (-15.00, 28.27) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 27.50 | (-43.54, 90.04) | 3.22 | (-4.98, 10.53) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 1.49 | (-2.16, 4.94) | 0.17 | (-0.25, 0.58) | ||
| Cold seasons | Total population | Whole PM 2.5 | 233.62 | (60.63, 380.68) | 17.73 | (4.6, 28.88) |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 119.33 | (30.22, 197.62) | 9.05 | (2.29, 14.99) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 28.41 | (7.2, 47.07) | 2.16 | (0.55, 3.57) | ||
| Males | Whole PM 2.5 | 164.11 | (19.9, 292.52) | 18.50 | (2.24, 32.98) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 85.55 | (10.06, 155.59) | 9.64 | (1.13, 17.54) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 21.66 | (2.54, 39.5) | 2.44 | (0.29, 4.45) | ||
| Females | Whole PM 2.5 | 62.69 | (-46.26, 146.17) | 14.55 | (-10.73, 33.91) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 31.05 | (-21.69, 73.97) | 7.2 | (-5.03, 17.16) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 6.30 | (-4.47, 14.96) | 1.46 | (-1.04, 3.47) | ||
| 0–64 years | Whole PM 2.5 | 186.68 | (2.61, 342.28) | 15.24 | (0.21, 27.94) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 95.4 | (1.3, 177.88) | 7.79 | (0.11, 14.52) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 22.57 | (0.31, 42.09) | 1.84 | (0.03, 3.44) | ||
| 65 years or older | Whole PM 2.5 | 41.16 | (5.73, 60.99) | 44.25 | (6.16, 65.58) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 21.41 | (2.76, 33.2) | 23.03 | (2.96, 35.70) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 5.72 | (0.72, 9.13) | 6.15 | (0.77, 9.81) | ||
| Urban | Whole PM 2.5 | 187.08 | (27.78, 331.17) | 15.81 | (2.35, 27.99) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 96.05 | (13.91, 172.8) | 8.12 | (1.18, 14.61) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 23.63 | (3.43, 42.52) | 2.00 | (0.29, 3.59) | ||
| Rural | Whole PM 2.5 | 56.31 | (-1.59, 92.44) | 41.71 | (-1.18, 68.47) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 29.11 | (-0.73, 51.03) | 21.56 | (-0.54, 37.8) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 4.89 | (-0.12, 8.84) | 3.62 | (-0.09, 6.55) | ||
| GRDP High | Whole PM 2.5 | 96.11 | (-36.64, 204.64) | 15.58 | (-6.26, 33.17) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 51.23 | (-19.81, 111.20) | 8.30 | (-3.21, 18.02) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 13.54 | (-5.25, 29.41) | 2.19 | (-0.85, 4.77) | ||
| GRDP Low | Whole PM 2.5 | 137.2 | (13.83, 237.86) | 19.57 | (1.97, 33.93) | |
| WHO guidelines (>15 μg/m 3 ) | 67.64 | (6.56, 120.01) | 9.65 | (0.94, 17.12) | ||
| NAAQS & KAS (> 35 μg/m 3 ) | 14.15 | (1.37, 25.17) | 2.02 | (0.20, 3.59) | ||