Table 2.
General description of study
| Authors | Study Design | Sample Size & Study Population | Measures of Cognitive Distortions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Baúto et al. (2022) [14] | Mixed method approach | 66 Portuguese male offenders convicted for crimes of child sexual abuse (CSA) | Cognitive distortion (CD) measure based on FBI Child Molesters Profile Model |
| Civilotti et al. (2023) [17] | Cross-sectional study | 14 Italian male detained stalkers | Dissociative Experiences Scale-II (DES-II), Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), and Index Offence Interview (IOI) |
| D’Urso et al. (2021) [29] | Exploratory research | 128 male sex offenders against adult victims from Italy | Vindictive Rape Attitude Questionnaire (VRAQ), Hanson Sex Attitude Questionnaire (SAQ), and Moral Disengagement Scale |
| D’Urso et al. (2023) [30] | Case study | 1 male sexual offender against minors | Clinical interviews, psychodiagnostic, psychological evaluations, as well as specific psychodiagnostic tests, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) and the Erotic Psycho Induction Test |
| Demeter & Rusu (2019) [31] | Correlational design | 55 Romanian incarcerated individuals for robbery, stealing, murder, rape, driving without a license, profanation of graves, attempted robbery, prison-breaking, false testimony, attempt of murder, and trafficking of minors | How I Think Questionnaire (HIT) |
| Grady et al. (2022) [32] | Mixed method approach | 195 individuals convicted of sexual offenses | Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) scale |
| Guerrero-Molina et al. (2023) [33] | Quasi-experiment | 129 men convicted of gender-based violence in penitentiary centers in Spain | Inventory of distorted thoughts about women and the use of violence (IDTWV) and inventory of distorted thoughts concerning violence (IDTV) |
| Haslee & Salina (2019) [34] | Quantitative research | 123 female Malaysian Muslim inmates with drug-related cases | Cognitive Distortion Scale (CDS) |
| Jha & Dhillon (2020) [16] | Cross-sectional study | 75 Indian offenders, under-trial for theft, fraud, snatching and drug related criminal activities | Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles-(PICTS-Lay Person Edition) |
| Martínez-Catena et al. (2021) [35] | Pre-post treatment design | 145 men serving a prison sentence for abusing children in Spain | Psychological Assessment Scale for Sex Offenders (PASSO) |
| Mohammad Rahim et al. (2021) [36] | Mixed method approach | 71 male murderers from Malaysia | Malay-validated psychometric instruments, including Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire-M-40-Cross-Cultural (ZKPQ-M40-CC), Self-Control Scale (SCS-M), Aggression Questionnaire (AQ-12-M), and How I Think Questionnaire (HIT-M) |
| Ngubane et al. (2022) [15] | Qualitative research | 18 incarcerated male perpetrators of rape in South Africa | Interview guide consisting of open-ended questions and probing questions on their background and lifepath, childhood history and familial histories of violence, their views on sexual behavior, misconceptions or ideas related to sexual violence and rape, their mentors or role models, viewpoints on criminal behavior and cultural contextualization, and their spiritual and religious backgrounds. |
| Oettingen et al. (2023) [37] | Cross-sectional study | 102 men incarcerated for sexual offenses in Poland | Polish version of Young Schema Questionnaire – Short Form – 3rd Version (YSQ-S3-PL) |
| Paquette et al. (2019) [38] | Qualitative research | 60 Canadian men with online child sexual exploitation material and solicitation offenses | Investigators from the Sûreté du Québec performed the interviews following organizational protocol. A total of 1,136 statements suggestive of offense-supportive cognitions were retrieved from the verbal conduct of inmates. |
| Pérez-Ramírez et al. (2021) [39] | Cross-sectional study | 194 male prisoners managing mental disorders from Mexico | ACEs questionnaire, and Self-Stigma of Mental Illness Scale-Short Form (SSMIS-SF) |
| Petruccelli et al. (2022) [40] | Cross-sectional study | 96 sex offenders (64 Italians and 32 Portuguese) | Basic Empathy Scale (BES), Moral Disengagement Scale (MDS), Vindictive Rape Attitude Questionnaire (VRAQ), and Hanson Sex Attitude Questionnaire (SAQ) |
| Rezapour-Mirsaleh et al. (2021) [41] | Quasi-experiment | 24 male prisoners with drug-related cases in Iran | Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) |
| Saladino et al. (2023) [42] | Cross-sectional study | 29 Italian male sexual offenders | Compulsive Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI), Sexual Sensation-seeking Scale (SSSS), High-Risk Situation Checklist, and Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ), adapted in Italian |
| Siserman et al. (2022) [43] | Cross-sectional study | 126 prisoners from Romania found guilty of offenses against bodily integrity and other offenses | Young Schema Questionnaire – Short Form – 3rd Version (YSQ-S3) |
| Steel et al. (2021) [49] | Cross-sectional study | 78 adults in the United States with prior convictions for child pornography offenses | Survey questionnaire broken up into three areas: General perceptions; Endorsement of child pornography beliefs; and Legality |
| Szumski & Bartoszak (2022) [44] | Quantitative research | 252 Polish (64 sexual offenders against children, 46 sexual offenders against adults, 74 nonsexual violent offenders, and 68 non-offending males) | Sexual Offenders’ Cognitive Distortions Questionnaire (SOCCDQ) and Child Sexual Abuse Causes and Effects Evaluation Task (CSACEET) |
| Umusig et al. (2024) [45] | Cross-sectional study | 300 offenders from the Philippines with drug-related cases | The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) |
| Velasquez Marafiga et al. (2022) [46] | Descriptive, correlational, and explanatory | 49 men convicted for statutory rape | Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ-S3) and Cognitive Scale |
| Verkade et al. (2021) [47] | Cross-sectional study | 38 Dutch female offenders (10 property offences, 2 drug-related crimes, 1 arson, 2 theft involving violence or extortion, 2 maltreatment, 7 threats of or attempted homicide, 6 offences in multiple categories, 8 were still awaiting trial) |
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), Test of Self Conscious Affects (TOSCA), and HIT questionnaire |
| Wuyts et al. (2023) [48] | Semi-structured interviews | 9 incarcerated Flemish who were identified as persons with sexual offenses (PSOs) | A semi-structured topic list was created in advance based on the prior literature review to validate that all themes were covered |