Table 1.

Overview of lymph node metastasis mechanisms in cancer

Cancer type	Mechanism of metastasis	Common lymph nodes affected	Prognostic significance	Refs.
Breast cancer	Hematogenous and lymphatic spread	Axillary lymph nodes	Indicates advanced stage; often associated with poorer prognosis	[90, 91]
Melanoma	Via lymphatics primarily	Sentinel lymph nodes	Early detection in sentinel node can improve outcomes	[92]
Lung cancer	Lymphatic spread; direct extension	Mediastinal and hilar lymph nodes	Nodal involvement often indicative of advanced disease	[93]
Prostate cancer	Lymphatic and hematogenous routes	Pelvic lymph nodes	Correlates with higher grade and stage of cancer	[94]
Gastric cancer	Lymphatic dissemination	Perigastric lymph nodes	Predicts poorer survival; guides therapeutic decisions	[95]
Head and neck cancer	Lymphatics, direct extension, sometimes hematogenous	Cervical lymph nodes	Critical for staging and prognosis; affects treatment choice	[96]
Colorectal cancer	Primarily through lymphatics	Regional lymph nodes	Important for staging and treatment planning	[97]
Ovarian cancer	Transcoelomic spread, lymphatics, hematogenous	Para-aortic and pelvic lymph nodes	Advanced stage indicator, influences treatment strategy	[98]
Thyroid cancer	Lymphatic and hematogenous spread	Cervical and mediastinal lymph nodes	Indicates more advanced disease; impacts treatment decisions	[99]
Bladder cancer	Primarily lymphatic dissemination	Pelvic and abdominal lymph nodes	Nodal metastasis is a marker for advanced stage and poor prognosis	[100]
Kidney cancer	Hematogenous spread and lymphatic pathways	Regional lymph nodes	Presence in lymph nodes often indicates metastatic disease	[101]
Esophageal cancer	Lymphatic spread, direct extension	Mediastinal and cervical lymph nodes	Critical for staging; impacts survival and treatment options	[102]
Pancreatic cancer	Lymphatic spread, perineural and vascular invasion	Peripancreatic and retroperitoneal nodes	Early lymph node involvement associated with worse prognosis	[103]
Cervical cancer	Lymphatic dissemination	Pelvic and para-aortic lymph nodes	Important for staging and treatment planning; affects prognosis	[104]
Testicular cancer	Lymphatic and hematogenous routes	Para-aortic and pelvic lymph nodes	Indicates stage of disease; important for prognosis and treatment	[105]
Endometrial cancer	Lymphatic spread	Pelvic and para-aortic lymph nodes	Influences staging and therapeutic approach; impacts prognosis	[106]
Leukemia	Hematogenous spread, infiltration	Inguinal, axillary, cervical lymph nodes	Lymph node involvement can indicate progression and subtype	[107]
Hodgkin's lymphoma	Sequential spread from one lymph node group to next	Cervical, axillary, mediastinal lymph nodes	Critical for staging; often has good prognosis if detected early	[108]
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma	Lymphatic and hematogenous spread	Cervical, axillary, inguinal lymph nodes	Staging and subtype classification; significant for prognosis	[109]
Bone cancer (e.g., osteosarcoma)	Hematogenous spread	Regional lymph nodes, distal sites	Rare but suggests advanced disease and impacts prognosis	[110]
Skin cancer (Non-melanoma)	Lymphatic spread, direct extension	Regional lymph nodes	Lymph node metastasis is rare but indicates advanced disease	[111]
Soft tissue sarcoma	Hematogenous and lymphatic spread	Regional lymph nodes	Nodal involvement is rare; indicates high grade, advanced disease	[112]
Gallbladder cancer	Lymphatic and direct spread	Pericholedochal and cystic duct lymph nodes	Indicates advanced disease; poor prognostic factor	[113]
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma	Lymphatic spread	Cervical lymph nodes	Early involvement common; important for staging and prognosis	[114]