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. 2024 Dec 18;22:286. doi: 10.1186/s12915-024-02081-y

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Schematic representation of haplotypes and genetic diversity of CYP6P4a and CYP6P4b in resistant mosquitoes across Africa, FUMOZ, and FANG. A Phylogenetic tree for CYP6P4a plotted using the JTT model, showing selection of major alleles in all regions in 2021. B Haplotype network for CYP6P4a revealing a fixed haplotype common Southern Africa, a fixed haplotype common to Uganda and Cameroon, and major haplotypes in Ghana and Benin, but high diversity in FANG. C Schematic representation of haplotypes of CYP6P4a with mutations occurring in Ghana highlighted in red. D Phylogenetic tree for CYP6P4b plotted using the JTT model, showing selection of major alleles in all regions in 2021. E CYP6P4b haplotype network. A fixed haplotype is observed in Southern population (Malawi and FUMOZ) and the formation of a major haplotype common to Uganda and Cameroon. F Schematic representation of haplotypes of CYP6P4b with D284E mutation occurring in Ghana highlighted in red. G Plot of genetic diversity parameters of CYP6P4a and CYP6P4b across Africa showing the signatures of a directional selection of CYP6P4a and CYP6P4b between 2014 and 2021 in haplotype diversity (Hd) and nucleotide diversity (π)