Fig. 1. Intricate associations between the different levels of human, digital twins, and on-chip technologies.

The diagram illustrates the complex and interconnected relationships between different biological levels, from organelles to the human body as a whole, and their associated digital twins (DTs) and on-chip technologies. These connections are crucial for advancing drug discovery, as integrating DTs with on-chip systems allows for more precise and efficient simulations and experiments. The arrows in the diagram emphasize the dynamic interaction between these biological levels, their DT counterparts, and the on-chip systems. This integration creates a feedback loop, where insights gained from DTs inform on-chip experiments, and findings from these experiments, in turn, refine the DT models. This continuous process optimizes resource utilization, accelerates discoveries, and drives innovation in drug development.