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. 2024 Dec 22;17(1):e12641. doi: 10.1111/aphw.12641

Dynamic duo is inseparable: Self‐compassion and compassion for others interact to predict well‐being

Floria H N Chio 1, Winnie W S Mak 1,✉, Regina H L Cheng 1
PMCID: PMC11664029  PMID: 39710874

Abstract

While previous studies have examined the independent effect of self‐compassion or compassion for others on well‐being, the present study examined how self‐compassion may interact with compassion for others in predicting well‐being. Two studies were conducted. In Study 1, 457 participants completed assessments at baseline and 229 participants were retained and completed the assessment at 4‐month follow‐up. Results showed that baseline self‐compassion predicted higher levels of subsequent well‐being when baseline compassion for others was moderate or high. Study 2 recruited 147 participants and they were assigned to either the self‐compassion condition or the control condition. Results showed that participants who practiced self‐compassion for 1 week in the self‐compassion condition showed more reduction in negative affect than the control condition when baseline compassion for others was high. Findings showed that the effects of compassion for the self on one's well‐being may be contingent on one's compassion for others.

Keywords: compassion for others, negative affect, self‐compassion, well‐being

INTRODUCTION

Compassion is generally defined as the motivation and intention to alleviate the suffering of people (Lazarus, 1991). Compassion is associated with a number of positive outcomes, including volunteerism, empathy, and enhanced well‐being (Crocker & Canevello, 2008; Lee et al., 2021; Pommier, 2010; Sprecher & Fehr, 2005). Compassion can enhance well‐being by fostering social connectedness (Friedel, 2024). The capacity to show compassion and offer help to others is associated with a range of positive outcomes, particularly by fostering both the receipt of social support and the development of mutual support systems (Crocker & Canevello, 2008; Crocker & Canevello, 2012). Compassionate individuals are more likely to receive social support, which in turn enhances their ability to effectively utilize and benefit from such support during stressful situations (Cosley et al., 2010). In their experiment, Cosley et al. (2010) demonstrated that participants with higher levels of trait compassion exhibited lower stress reactivity, including reduced blood pressure and cortisol responses, when receiving social support during a stress‐inducing task. In contrast, no such benefits were observed in participants exposed to a neutral social condition, regardless of their trait of compassion. These findings suggest that compassion for others not only facilitates the receipt of social support but also enhances the ability to derive physiological and emotional benefits from supportive interactions during stressful situations. Other studies also show that a healthy concern for others is linked to the fulfilment of relatedness and competence needs (Gerber et al., 2015; Gerber & Anaki, 2021), further suggesting that compassion can contribute to well‐being by fostering social connectedness and fulfilling core psychological needs. Numerous studies have shown that the cultivation of compassion can improve a number of psychophysiological and interpersonal outcomes. For instance, it has been found that after engaging in a brief daily exercise of compassionate acts for others (5–15 minutes every day for 7 days), participants showed increased happiness and self‐esteem over six months (Mongrain et al., 2011).

In addition to directing warmth and care towards other people, self‐compassion has also gained widespread attention in recent decades. It is defined as compassion directed inwardly towards the self (Neff, 2016). Research has also demonstrated that even short‐term training in self‐compassion is effective in improving one's well‐being. One study showed that after attending a training session in self‐compassion once a week for three weeks, participants demonstrated significantly better improvement in self‐compassion, mindfulness, optimism, self‐efficacy, and a reduction in rumination compared to the time‐management control group (Smeets et al., 2014). Another study showed that after a 3‐week training in self‐compassion, participants showed reduced body dissatisfaction and body shame, as well as better body appreciation compared to the waitlist control group (Albertson et al., 2015). Other trainings lasting around a week were also found to be effective. For instance, Shapira and Mongrain (2010) found that significant improvement in depression and happiness was shown after participants had practiced writing a compassionate letter to themselves for one week. Arch et al. (2014) also found that after listening to a self‐compassion audio practice for five days, participants showed significantly lower anxiety responses to social evaluative threat compared to the attention control group, further demonstrating the protective role of self‐compassion on well‐being.

THE MUTUALLY REINFORCING EFFECTS OF SELF‐COMPASSION AND COMPASSION FOR OTHERS

While both self‐compassion and other‐compassion are linked to well‐being, encompassing hedonic well‐being (i.e., positive emotions and life satisfaction) and eudaimonic well‐being (i.e., realizing human potential; Keyes et al., 2008; Ryff, 1989; Waterman, 1993), these studies often examine the effects of compassion for the self and others separately. In a scoping review, it was found that self‐compassion is associated with interpersonal outcomes, although the authors noted that most studies reviewed are cross‐sectional in nature and more studies are needed to establish causality (Lathren et al., 2021). The authors also noted that the association between self‐compassion and interpersonal outcomes could be bidirectional, such that self‐compassion may predict better social relationships and emotional well‐being, and better social relationships may also predict higher self‐compassion. In explaining the possible mechanism, Cha et al. (2023) suggested that self‐compassion may foster motivational changes, such as self‐transcendence, which could link self‐compassion to other‐compassion. There are also studies showing how other‐compassion and self‐compassion could be associated. For instance, one study found that experimentally prompting participants to think about or give support to others increased levels of self‐compassion (Breines & Chen, 2013). Other studies also found that having compassionate goals was associated with increased levels of self‐compassion (Crocker & Canevello, 2008). A study further found that self‐compassion activates brain regions similar to those involved in empathic concern for others (Longe et al., 2010), suggesting that acting compassionately toward the self may activate a general process that is also linked to acting compassionately toward others and fostering other‐focused concern. These studies suggest that self‐compassion and other‐compassion may mutually reinforce one another.

While existing compassion‐based interventions often incorporate practices or elements of both self‐compassion and other‐compassion, their emphasis is often skewed towards either one or the other (Quaglia et al., 2021). In a systematic review of compassion‐based interventions, Quaglia et al. (2021) analyzed 94 studies and examined the percentage of emphasis given to the teachings or practice of self‐compassion and other‐compassion in their interventions. Their findings showed that most studies focused more on one form of compassion, with only five studies giving equal emphasis to both. The authors further argued that the dichotomy of compassion into self and other‐compassion may inadvertently limit its potential benefits. Cha et al. (2023) also noted that existing studies on the beneficial effects of self‐compassion beyond the self are less examined, and the focus on self‐compassion conceptualization and practice without considering other‐compassion is debatable.

Before concluding whether integrating both self‐ and other‐compassion equally in interventions is more beneficial, studies are necessary to examine the unique impacts and mechanisms of each. Investigating how self‐compassion and other‐compassion individually influence well‐being, and whether a combined approach offers greater benefits, is essential to fully understand their distinct and overlapping effects. Some intervention studies have shown that cultivating self‐compassion (e.g., Germer & Neff, 2019) or other‐compassion (e.g., Jazaieri et al., 2013; Matos et al., 2022) can enhance both self‐compassion and other‐compassion, but these interventions include practices and education on both self‐compassion and other‐compassion in one or more of their sessions. There are a few studies that specifically compared the effects of self‐compassion and other‐compassion cultivation. For instance, Chio et al. (2021) found that cultivating other‐compassion or engaging in loving‐kindness meditation (which involves the cultivation of both self‐ and other‐compassion) led to greater increases in universalism compared to self‐compassion cultivation alone. Similarly, another study compared the effects of prompting acts of kindness for others, acts of kindness for the self, self‐kindness meditation, and daily‐activities‐writing control among early‐stage breast cancer survivors (Haydon et al., 2023). It was found that perceived social support, which measures both perceived support received and given, increased only in the acts of kindness for others condition, with no significant changes in the other conditions. In addition, participants who practiced self‐kindness meditation reported lower levels of self‐kindness compared to a control condition. These findings seem to suggest that the cultivation of self‐compassion, other‐compassion, or a combination of both may have differential effects, but more studies are needed to examine whether the presence of both self‐compassion and other‐compassion can yield better effects.

INTEGRATING SELF‐COMPASSION AND COMPASSION FOR OTHERS: THEIR COMBINED EFFECTS

The dualistic view of compassion contradicts Buddhist traditions, where the self is not seen as independent or central, but as interconnected with others (Hanh, 1992). In Buddhism, compassion is not confined to the self or others but stems from the wisdom of recognizing the interconnected nature of all beings (Hanh, 1997). Studies have shown that people who practice Buddhist meditations have lower self‐other boundaries (Trautwein et al., 2016) and a stronger association between self‐compassion and other‐compassion than community adults or college students (Neff & Pommier, 2013). Buddhist teachings also emphasize that compassion should not be limited to self‐centered concerns or exclusive benevolence toward others. Instead, it encourages transcending the ego and recognizing the shared nature of suffering (Hanh, 1997). Some empirical findings align with this perspective, showing that focusing exclusively on others' suffering without cultivating a healthy relationship with oneself can be detrimental (e.g., Tolmacz, 2013), just as relying solely on self‐compassion without affiliative relationships with others can be unhealthy (e.g., Bowlby, 1977; Kirby et al., 2019). Balancing both self‐ and other‐compassion may be crucial for mental health.

Loving‐kindness meditation (LKM), rooted in Buddhist teachings, also emphasizes the cultivation of compassion and positive wishes for both oneself and others. This practice typically starts with individuals directing love and kindness inward. They are then guided to extend these same qualities to a close person, followed by expanding their compassion to include strangers, difficult individuals, and eventually all beings. The focus is on fostering love and warm wishes universally, encompassing both oneself and others. Research has shown that LKM is effective in enhancing positive affect, self‐compassion, other‐compassion, and positive attitudes toward others, while also reducing distress (Boellinghaus et al., 2013; Fredrickson et al., 2008; Hutcherson et al., 2008; Reilly & Stuyvenberg, 2023; Weibel, 2007). These findings highlight the mental health benefits of the simultaneous cultivation of compassion for oneself and all beings.

Additionally, Gilbert (2005) proposed that self‐compassion is a form of self‐to‐self relating, which mirrors the dynamics of self‐other relationships, such as caregiving and care‐seeking. The internal working models for how individuals relate to others may shape how they relate to themselves. It is possible that people high in compassion for others may be particularly receptive to self‐compassion practices, as their skills in caregiving may facilitate the internalization of compassionate attitudes toward themselves when taught explicitly. Also, the two‐stage model of meditation suggests that for meditation to have an effect on compassion, the first step involves disengaging from self‐preoccupation and self‐defeating behaviors, followed by developing engagement and compassion for others (Kristeller & Johnson, 2005). The authors further explain that cultivating a compassionate attitude towards the self before extending it to others is crucial because, without an awareness of one's inner resources and a compassionate stance towards oneself, individuals may quickly shift into a protective mode and negative emotions such as anger may also result. Having a compassionate stance toward oneself may act as a resource to deal with these negative feelings. This aligns with research showing that helping professions with lower compassion fatigue demonstrated significantly less levels of self‐coldness than their counterparts (Ondrejková & Halamová, 2022). Furthermore, they found that self‐coldness was the strongest predictor of compassion fatigue, while compassion for others and self‐warmth were not significantly associated. This may further suggest that when engaging in compassionate acts toward others, negative outcomes, such as compassion fatigue, may occur when people are critical and not compassionate to themselves. Self‐compassion provides an important mechanism for self‐regulation in times of stress (Finlay‐Jones et al., 2015; Inwood & Ferrari, 2018) and may serve as a buffer against the emotional strain that can arise when offering compassion to others. Without self‐compassion, it is possible that offering compassion for others is associated with compassion fatigue because the person is not addressing their own emotional needs. For individuals high in compassion for others, cultivating self‐compassion may be particularly beneficial, serving as a resource to protect against stress and compassion fatigue when caring for others. Also, their compassionate orientation may make it easier to internalize self‐compassion. In the present study, we therefore examined the moderating role of baseline other‐compassion on the effect of self‐compassion cultivation and hypothesized that those high in other‐compassion would show greater receptivity and benefits from the self‐compassion intervention.

AIM OF THE PRESENT STUDY

In sum, the present study aimed to examine the interaction between self‐compassion and compassion for others in predicting well‐being. The Self‐Compassion Scale has been represented in different ways in the literature, with some studies using a general score to measure overall self‐compassion (e.g., Neff, 2016; Neff et al., 2019), while others distinguish between the presence of self‐warmth and the absence of self‐criticism (e.g., Brenner et al., 2017; Muris, 2016; Muris et al., 2019; Muris & Petrocchi, 2017). Longe et al. (2010) found that self‐criticism and self‐reassurance are linked to different brain activations, suggesting that they may represent distinct processes. Additionally, self‐criticism is often viewed as more adaptive and less problematic in collectivistic cultures (Heine, 2003). In dialectical cultures, the relationship between self‐warmth and self‐coldness is also found to be weaker, suggesting that one can exist without negating the other (Chio et al., 2021). Given that this study was conducted in Hong Kong, a context characterized by higher levels of collectivism (Hofstede, 2001) and dialectical values (Schimmack et al., 2002), we explored the effect of self‐compassion using both the general score and its subscales (self‐warmth and self‐coldness) to examine their potential mechanisms with compassion for others and well‐being.

Two studies were conducted. In Study 1, a prospective design was utilized, and it was hypothesized that there would be an interaction between trait self‐compassion and trait compassion for others on well‐being. A synergistic positive effect of baseline self‐compassion and other‐compassion on subsequent levels of well‐being was hypothesized. In Study 2, the moderating role of baseline compassion for others on the effectiveness of self‐compassion cultivation on positive and negative affect was examined. It was hypothesized that the positive effect of self‐compassion training on affect would be maximized when baseline compassion for others was also high.

STUDY 1

Method

Participants

Participants who understand written Chinese and aged 18 or above were eligible for the study. A total of 457 university students completed the baseline questionnaire of the studied variables. About half (n = 229) of these participants completed the same set of questionnaires again four months later. T‐tests indicated no significant differences on all baseline measures between participants who dropped out at the 4‐month follow‐up assessment (n = 228) and those who were retained at both time points (n = 229; ts < 1.59, ps > .11). Chi‐square tests (χ 2  < 1.05, ps > .31) also showed no significant differences between these two groups of participants on gender and types of students (i.e., undergraduate or postgraduate students). Among the 457 participants (66.7% female, mean age = 20.02, SD = 2.93), a majority of them were undergraduate students (n = 382) and the remaining were graduate students (n = 75).

Procedures

Ethics approval was obtained from the Survey and Behavioral Research Ethics Committee of The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Participants were recruited through an invitation mail from the university mass mail system. Upon obtaining informed consent, participants completed the baseline assessment online. Participants were contacted and invited to complete the follow‐up assessment 4 months after their completion of the baseline measures. Participants who completed the questionnaire were entered into a cash prize draw of HKD$100 (~USD12). A total of 10 participants were drawn for the cash prize at baseline and 4‐month follow‐up, respectively. The study was not pre‐registered.

Measures

Self‐compassion

Self‐compassion was measured by the Self‐compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003). The scale comprises of 26 items assessing self‐compassion, with positive aspects including self‐kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness and negative aspects including self‐judgment, isolation, and over‐identification on a 5‐point Likert scale (1 = “almost never” and 5 = “almost always”). Sample item includes “When I'm going through a very hard time, I give myself the caring and tenderness I need”. The two‐factor solution was suggested in recent research in measuring self‐warmth and self‐coldness (Babenko & Guo, 2019; Brenner et al., 2017; Hayes et al., 2016; Kotera & Sheffield, 2020). Other studies also showed that the use of positive and negative factors of the self‐compassion scale yielded differential predictability on well‐being and distress (Brenner et al., 2017; Chio et al., 2021; Muris & Petrocchi, 2017). In the present study, levels of self‐warmth and self‐coldness were computed by averaging the positive subscales and negative subscales, respectively. Cronbach's alpha for self‐warmth and self‐coldness at baseline was .89 and .91, respectively.

Compassion for others

The 24‐item Compassion Scale (CS; Pommier, 2010) was used to measure compassion for others in 6 domains, including kindness for others, common humanity, mindfulness, indifference, separation, and disengagement. Sample item includes “If I see someone going through a difficult time, I try to be caring toward that person”. Participants rated on a 5‐point Likert scale ranging from (1) almost never to (5) almost always. Items on indifference, separation, and disengagement were reversed‐scored to obtain the score for compassion for others. Cronbach's alpha at baseline was .90.

Mental well‐being

Mental well‐being was measured by the Mental Health Continuum – Short Form (MHC‐SF, Keyes et al., 2008). It consists of 14 items rated on a 6‐point Likert scale (1 = “never” and 6 = “everyday”) that measures mental well‐being in three dimensions including emotional well‐being, psychological well‐being, and social well‐being. A sample item is “How often during the past month did you feel that you had something important to contribute to society”. Cronbach's alpha was .93, and .94 at baseline and four‐month follow‐up, respectively.

Results

Data analysis

To examine the moderating role of compassion for others on the relationship between self‐warmth and self‐coldness with mental well‐being, PROCESS (model 1; Hayes, 2017) was conducted and it allows a bootstrapping procedure, making the results to be less sensitive to a small sample size (Preacher et al., 2007). With 5,000 bootstrapped sample, baseline self‐warmth was treated as the independent variable; baseline compassion for others was treated as the moderator; mental well‐being at 4‐month follow‐up was treated as the dependent variable, and baseline mental well‐being and baseline self‐coldness were treated as the covariates. When the interaction was significant, conditional effects would be conducted to examine the pattern of the interaction effect. The same procedure was conducted in another moderation analysis, except that self‐coldness, instead of self‐warmth, was treated as the independent variable, and self‐warmth, instead of self‐coldness, was treated as a covariate.

RESULTS

Correlations of the studied variables are shown in supplementary materials (Table S1), showing that self‐warmth, self‐coldness, and compassion for others were correlated with levels of well‐being at baseline. Results of the moderation analysis showed that the interaction of self‐warmth by compassion for others was significant (b = .29, SE = .13, t = 2.17, p = .03, 95% CI [.03, .54]). Conditional effects showed that the positive effects of self‐compassion on mental well‐being were significant only when compassion for others was at mean (b = .17, SE = .07, t = 2.27, p = .02) and 1 SD above mean (b = .31, SE = .10, t = 3.08, p = .002). The positive effect of self‐warmth on mental well‐being was not significant when compassion for others was 1 SD below the mean (b = .03, SE = .10, t = .26, p = .80). Another moderation was conducted by replacing self‐warmth with self‐coldness. Results showed that the interaction of self‐coldness by compassion for others was not significant (b = −.16, SE = .13, t = −1.29, p = .20, 95% CI: [−.41, .09]). The main effect of compassion for others (b = −.05, SE = .09, t = −.55, p = .58, 95% CI: [−.24, .13]) was non‐significant, whereas the main effect of self‐coldness (b = −.21, SE = .07, t = −2.98, p = .003, 95% CI [−.35, −.07]) was significant.

Using the general score of self‐compassion in the analysis, results showed that the interaction of self‐compassion with compassion for others was also significant (b = .46, SE = .18, t = 2.54, p = .01, 95% CI: [.46, .69]). Conditional effects showed that the effect of self‐compassion on mental well‐being was significant when baseline compassion for others was at mean level (b = .31, SE = .11, t = 2.78, p = .006) and 1SD above mean (b = .54, SE = .12, t = 4.50, p < .001). Table S2 shows details of the analyses.

STUDY 2

Method

Participants

Data for Study 2 were from a previous study that examined the association between self‐compassion and compassion for others (Chio et al., 2022). Sample size was determined by power analysis using G*Power. Considering a small‐to‐moderate effect size (f = .17) on the effectiveness of the cultivation of self‐compassion and well‐being. A minimum of 70 participants was needed to attain 80% power. Given the potential of attrition, we recruited 147 students (64.6% female; mean age = 21.06, SD = 2.75) who either registered through the university mass mail or from the psychology subject pool system. Participants were told that the study was to examine the effect of compassion on mental health. Participants who understood written Chinese and spoken Cantonese and aged 18 or above were eligible for the study. The chance of winning HKD$2,000 in the random draw or participation credits in a course was offered as the incentive for those who completed the study. Upon obtaining informed consent, participants were assigned to either the self‐compassion condition (n = 63) or the control condition (n = 84). They were then asked to complete the pre‐assessment measures. A total of 26 participants did not complete the post‐induction measures, leaving the final sample size of 121 participants (self‐compassion condition = 60; control condition = 61) in the analyses. T‐tests and chi‐square tests comparing those who retained (n = 121) and dropped out (n = 26) indicated no significant differences (ps > .05) in age, gender, year of study, self‐compassion, compassion for others, and positive and negative affect at baseline. A large majority of participants were undergraduates (85.1%) and the remaining (14.9%) were postgraduate students. A summary of the sample characteristics across conditions is shown in Table S3.

Procedures

The study was approved by the Survey and Behavioral Research Ethics Committee of The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Upon obtaining informed consent, all participants completed the baseline measures. Self‐compassion condition participants listened to a 20‐minute self‐compassion audio and were guided to follow the instructions in the audio, whereas the control condition did not receive any intervention. The audio was designed with reference to the self‐compassion exercise proposed by Neff (2012).

The self‐compassion audio began by directing the participants to sit in a relaxed and comfortable way with their eyes closed and take some deep breaths. They were first guided to focus on sending blessings to themselves and mindfully observing the feelings and body sensations in the process. The participants were then invited to recall a recently stressful or emotionally difficult moment and observe body sensations arising. Participants were guided to give a soothing touch on their chest and were directed to recite the phrases silently that were related to self‐compassion such as “may I accept myself”, “may I forgive myself”, “sufferings is a part of our life”, “I am not alone” “this is a difficult moment”. After the first practice, participants in the self‐compassion condition were given the same audio link to continue the practice for the following 7 days. A daily message reminder was sent to the participants to encourage adherence. After a week, participants in the self‐compassion condition were invited to listen to the audio and complete the post‐assessments, whereas participants in the control condition completed the post‐assessments directly. The study was not pre‐registered.

Measures

Self‐compassion

This Self‐compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003) was used to measure the level of self‐compassion by separately scoring self‐warmth and self‐coldness as Study 1. Cronbach's alpha of self‐warmth at pre‐ and post‐assessment was .87 and .90, whereas Cronbach's alpha of self‐coldness at pre‐ and post‐assessment was .88 and .93.

Compassion for others

The Compassionate Love for Humanity Scale (Sprecher & Fehr, 2005) is a 21‐item questionnaire that measures the compassionate love attitude to others. A sample item is “When I hear about someone (a stranger) going through a difficult time, I feel a great deal of compassion for him or her.”. Participants were asked to rate on a 7‐point Likert scale ranging from (1) not at all true of me to (7) very true of me. Cronbach's alpha was .93 at pre‐assessment.

Positive and negative affect

The 20‐item Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson et al. (1988) was used to assess positive and negative affect. The scale consists of 10 items assessing positive affect and the remaining items assessing negative affect. A sample affect item in the scale is “upset”. Participants rated on a 5‐point Likert scale ranging from (1) very slightly or not at all to (5) extremely. Cronbach's alpha of positive affect was .84 and .93 at pre‐ and post‐assessment, respectively, whereas Cronbach's alpha of negative affect at pre‐ and post‐assessment was .88 and .92, respectively.

Data analysis

To examine whether participants in the self‐compassion condition could cultivate higher levels of self‐warmth and lower levels of self‐coldness than their counterparts in the control condition, a 2 (self‐compassion and control conditions) × 2 (pre‐ and post‐assessment) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted. Condition was dummy‐coded, with the control condition treated as the reference category. When the interaction effect of time by condition was significant, univariate tests would be conducted to examine the source of significance of the interaction effects. The post‐assessment of self‐warmth and self‐coldness would also be compared with the pre‐assessment score in each condition to examine the time effect across conditions.

PROCESS (model 1) was conducted to investigate the moderating role of compassion for others on the relationship between condition and affect. Change scores of positive and negative affect were conducted by deducting the post‐positive/negative affect from the pre‐positive/negative affect. Condition and baseline compassion for others were entered as the independent variable and moderator, respectively, to predict changes in positive and negative affect.

RESULTS

Manipulation check

Repeated measures MANOVA on self‐warmth and self‐coldness showed a significant interaction effect of time by condition, F(2, 118) = 9.91, p < .001, Wilks' λ = .86, ηp 2  = .14. Univariate tests showed that the interaction effects of both self‐warmth, F(1, 119) = 6.27, p = .01, ηp 2  = .05, and self‐coldness = F(1,119) = 6.99, p = .01, ηp 2  = .06 were significant. Specifically, self‐warmth showed a significant increase and self‐coldness showed a significant decrease at post‐assessment as compared to the pre‐assessment in the self‐compassion condition (ps < .01). No significant changes were found in the control condition (ps > .63).

Repeated measures ANOVA on self‐compassion general score showed a significant interaction effect of time by condition, F(1, 119) = 19.99, p < .001, Wilks' λ = .86, ηp 2  = .17. Follow‐up tests showed that self‐compassion significantly increased at post assessment in the self‐compassion condition (p < .001) whereas no significant change was found in the control condition (p = .73).

Positive affect

Correlations of the studied variables are shown in Supplementary Materials (Table S4). Results from moderation analysis showed that the interaction of condition by baseline compassion for others was non‐significant (b = .11, SE = .10, t = 1.05, p = .30, 95% CI: [−.10, .32]. The main effect of condition (b = .23, SE = .08, t = 2.96, p = .004, 95% CI: [.07, .38]) was significant and baseline compassion for others (b = .001, SE = .07, t = .01, p = .99, 95% CI: [−.14, .14]) was non‐significant.

Negative affect

Results showed that the interaction effect of the condition by baseline compassion for others was significant (b = −.21, SE = .11, t = −1.95, p = .05, 95% CI: [‐.42, .00], R 2 change = .03). Conditional effects showed that the effect of self‐compassion condition on the reduction of negative affect was only significant when compassion for others was 1 SD above the mean (b = ‐.23, SE = .11, t = ‐2.06, p = .04). The effect was not significant when compassion for others was at mean level (b = ‐.07, SE = .08, t = ‐.92, p = .36) or 1 SD below the mean (b = .08, SE = .11, t = .73, p = .47). A summary of the moderation analysis is shown in Table S5.

DISCUSSION

The present study showed that when taking compassion for others into account, the positive effect of self‐compassion on well‐being was contingent on compassion for others. Specifically, the interaction effect in Study 1 showed that baseline self‐warmth and baseline self‐compassion aggregate score predicted higher levels of subsequent well‐being when baseline compassion for others was moderate or high. Study 2 showed that when taking baseline compassion for others into account, the cultivation of self‐compassion was effective in reducing negative affect when baseline compassion for others was also high. The present study provided empirical evidence on the possible synergistic effects between self‐compassion and compassion for others on one's mental well‐being. Being self‐sufficient but lacking concern for others, in an extreme form, is similar to “compulsive self‐reliance” (Bowlby, 1977). While compulsive self‐reliance was found to be associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety (Lapsley et al., 2000), the present study also showed in the interaction effect that a compassionate stance for oneself but not for others may not predict one's mental well‐being.

Results in Study 1 showed that it was only the presence of self‐warmth, but not the absence of self‐coldness, that showed a significant association with better mental well‐being when levels of compassion for others were moderate to high. This finding was consistent with results that showed the differential predictability of the positive and negative components of self‐compassion, with the positive components showing stronger associations with mental well‐being than the negative counterparts and the negative components showing stronger associations with psychological distress than the positive counterparts (Chio et al., 2021; Muris & Petrocchi, 2017). Such differential predictability may also be linked to the different processes involved during self‐criticism and self‐warmth. Gilbert (2005) proposed that self‐warmth and self‐criticism operate through distinct systems with differing emotional and physiological responses. Self‐warmth, associated with feelings of safeness and warmth, is linked to the self‐soothing system, which is grounded in the parasympathetic nervous system. In contrast, self‐criticism, associated with feelings of insecurity, is connected to the threat system, which is driven by the sympathetic nervous system. These differences in systems may explain why self‐warmth, driven by the self‐soothing system, more strongly predicts positive affective states and well‐being compared to self‐coldness, which is more closely associated with activation of the threat system and negative affective states (Chio et al., 2021). In the current study, since the outcome measure in Study 1 is well‐being, self‐coldness may show weaker predictability and non‐significant interaction compared to self‐warmth in predicting well‐being.

In addition, in collectivistic cultures, self‐criticism is not necessarily viewed as detrimental but is instead closely tied to broader cultural goals of self‐improvement, self‐effacement, and maintaining interpersonal harmony (Heine, 2003). Self‐criticism is more adaptive in collectivistic cultures where group harmony is more emphasized as it is regarded as a process to improve the self and maintain relationships. This cultural perspective may offer a potential explanation for the lack of a significant interaction between self‐coldness and other‐compassion on well‐being in the present study. Given that Hong Kong is influenced by collectivistic cultural values (Hofstede, 2001), self‐criticism may carry less negative connotations or have a less detrimental impact on well‐being in this context. The adaptive meaning of self‐coldness as a tool for promoting interpersonal harmony might attenuate its potential negative effects, rendering it a more neutral factor in its interplay with other‐compassion. Future research is needed to explore whether the interaction patterns between self‐coldness and other‐compassion vary across different cultural contexts.

Results in Study 2 showed that the cultivation of self‐compassion was associated with reduced negative affect among people who had higher levels of baseline compassion for others. Although a compassionate attitude toward others is important, some people might be caring for others' welfare but denying or ignoring their own needs. While not exactly the same, previous studies on “pathological concern” (Tolmacz, 2013) also showed that this characteristic was correlated with higher levels of negative affect, lower levels of positive affect, and reduced levels of life satisfaction (Shavit & Tolmacz, 2014). Although some people might be more compassionate to others than to the self, findings in the present study suggested that people may experience better mental well‐being when their compassion for the self goes hand in hand with compassion for others. Self‐compassion may also play a crucial role in buffering stress that could occur when offering compassion to others. However, the present study did not examine if the trait self‐compassion can moderate the association between compassion for others cultivation and well‐being. Further studies are needed to examine if similar results can be replicated with the trait self‐compassion and cultivation of compassion for others through experimental design.

These findings converge with previous studies and theoretical understanding and have implications on the implementation of self‐compassion or compassion for others cultivation. Instead of mainly promoting compassion for the self or compassion for others, as in existing interventions (Quaglia et al., 2021), service providers might need to be aware of service users' level of compassion for both the self and others. A cultivation of both self‐compassion and other‐compassion simultaneously such as loving‐kindness meditation might be favorable to promote one's mental well‐being. The cultivation was found to be effective in promoting both self‐compassion and compassion for others (Boellinghaus et al., 2013; Weibel, 2007). As compassion flowed not only to the self, but was expanded to others and all beings, loving‐kindness meditation might be an effective way to promote self‐ and other‐compassion, and thereby mental well‐being. However, more studies will be needed to further replicate the current findings.

The present study has several limitations. First, the two studies comprised of college students. One size does not fit all. Future studies may further explore if the synergistic effects are applicable to different populations. In addition, the present study did not test any gender, ethnicity, or age effects. Several studies found that the effect of self‐compassion on well‐being outcomes differed across gender, age, ethnic groups, and cultures (Bluth et al., 2017; Boyraz et al., 2021; Chio et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2016). Other factors such as negative life events, peer and family relationships may also affect the effect of compassion on mental health. It is possible that the synergistic effects of self‐compassion and compassion for others may vary across different groups and future studies are warranted to control for different demographics and psychological characteristics that may affect the synergistic effects of self‐ and other‐compassion. Also, the attrition rate of Study 1 was quite high, with almost half of the participants dropped out at time 2. Nevertheless, no significant difference in demographic characteristics and baseline variables between participants who dropped out and those who were retained was found and the study results were replicated using an experimental design in Study 2. However, a no‐intervention control condition was used in the current study and future studies may employ an active control condition to rule out the placebo effect. In the self‐compassion condition, while participants completed the first and last audio sessions under supervision in the experimental room, we could not verify whether they consistently adhered to the audio practice during the other days. Although daily reminders were sent to encourage compliance, it is possible that some participants did not engage with the audio as instructed, potentially affecting the intervention's overall effectiveness. Moreover, the significant interaction between self‐warmth and compassion for others on well‐being, and the non‐significant interaction between self‐coldness and compassion for others on well‐being in Study 1 may be attributed to the shared method factor, as the positive factor may better predict the positive outcomes. Study 1 did not measure negative psychological outcomes and further study can examine if these similar associations can be replicated in negative psychological outcomes. Finally, while compassion for others was treated as the moderator affecting the association between self‐compassion and well‐being in both studies, self‐compassion can also be the moderator affecting the association between compassion for others and well‐being. In Study 2, although we found that baseline trait other‐compassion interacted with the self‐compassion condition on the outcome, further study may examine how the cultivation of other‐compassion might interact with baseline trait self‐compassion to influence various outcomes. More studies would be needed to examine how varying levels of self‐ and other‐compassion may be associated with different psychological and interpersonal outcomes to further unravel their differential and synergistic effects. Despite these limitations, while previous studies mainly examine the independent effects of self‐compassion and compassion for others, the present findings highlighted the importance of accounting for both compassion for the self and for others in enhancing mental well‐being. Compassion may be inseparable between the self and others and compassion‐based interventions may need to put equal emphasis on the cultivation of both to maximize the beneficial effects.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

ETHICS STATEMENT

The studies described in this manuscript were approved by the appropriate human ethics committee and performed in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS

The study described in this manuscript was approved by the appropriate human ethics committee and was performed in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki.

INFORMED CONSENT

Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Supporting information

Table S1. Correlations between the included variables in Study 1.

Table S2. Moderator analyses predicting T2 mental health in Study 1.

Table S3. Sample characteristics across conditions in Study 2.

Table S4. Correlations between the studied variables in Study 2.

Table S5. Moderation analysis of baseline compassion for others by condition on positive and negative affect in Study 2.

APHW-17-0-s001.docx (39.9KB, docx)

Chio, F. H. N. , Mak, W. W. S. , & Cheng, R. H. L. (2025). Dynamic duo is inseparable: Self‐compassion and compassion for others interact to predict well‐being. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 17(1), e12641. 10.1111/aphw.12641

Funding information The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Contributor Information

Floria H. N. Chio, Email: hinnganchio@cuhk.edu.hk.

Winnie W. S. Mak, Email: wwsmak@cuhk.edu.hk.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data will be available upon request.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Table S1. Correlations between the included variables in Study 1.

Table S2. Moderator analyses predicting T2 mental health in Study 1.

Table S3. Sample characteristics across conditions in Study 2.

Table S4. Correlations between the studied variables in Study 2.

Table S5. Moderation analysis of baseline compassion for others by condition on positive and negative affect in Study 2.

APHW-17-0-s001.docx (39.9KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available upon request.

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