Fig. 4. Electrochemical properties of various lithium metal anodes. (a) Coulombic efficiencies (CEs) of different biologically derived, carbon-based lithium electrodes at a current density of 1.0 mA cm⁻². (b) Voltage-time profiles of lithium stripping/plating cycles for WTP-Li, BTP-Li, ATP-Li, UTP-Li, and Li foil electrodes in symmetric cells at a current density of 0.5 mA cm⁻² and a capacity of 0.5 mA h cm⁻². (c) Voltage-time profiles of lithium stripping/plating cycles for various lithium three-dimensional composite electrodes in symmetric cells at a current density of 0.5 mA cm⁻² and a capacity of 0.5 mA h cm⁻². (d) Rate performance of WTP-Li symmetric cells at current densities ranging from 0.25 to 5.0 mA cm⁻², with a stripping/plating capacity of 1.0 mA h cm⁻². (e) Initial charge and discharge curves for WTP-Li, UTP-Li, and bare lithium full batteries assembled with different biologically derived, carbon-based lithium electrodes. (f) Cycling performance of full cells. (g) Cycling performance of symmetric cells with various lithium three-dimensional composite electrodes. (h) Rate performance of full cells. (i) Cycling performance at 0.5C (where 1C = 140 mA h g⁻¹).