Table 2.

Themes of learner agency in self-regulated learning and self-directed learning

Themes	Subthemes	Frequency	Content
Intrapersonal	Self-efficacy	7	-Efficacy on internet and online learning, comparatively higher in females [47, 57] -Developing self-efficacy [5, 45, 52, 55, 70] -Varying self-efficacy levels across study years [47, 49]
	Motivation	10	-Students motivation for learning [41, 44, 48, 61–63, 65, 66] -Impact of clinical contact on motivation [58, 59, 64, 66]
	Knowledge acquisition	13	-Recognizing learning opportunities [40, 48, 49, 65–67] -Adopting different learning styles [42, 43, 48, 50, 51, 57, 61, 62]
	Skill development	4	-Transversal skills [21, 66] -Clinical reasoning skills [64] -Clinical application of skills [57, 60]
Behavioral	Learning Strategies	3	-Goal setting [41, 45, 59]
		3	-Planning [41, 45, 54, 56]
		3	-Monitoring [40, 41, 54, 59]
		11	-Self-reflection [45, 54, 59, 62, 64, 69] -Self-perception of academic performance [40, 44, 45, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55, 65]
		6	-Self-evaluation/Self-assessment [41, 48, 53, 59, 60, 69]
Contextual	With peers	5	-Peer support from students in other years [62, 70] -Active discussion and interactions with peers within the class [21, 45, 62, 66, 70]
	With supervisors	9	-Support from the supervisor [21, 42, 44, 45, 48, 51, 56, 62, 66, 70]
	With institutions	17	-PBL as an effective strategy to support student autonomy [5, 50, 61] -Support for various learning formats (flipped classroom, blended learning and so on) [21, 56, 65] -Institutional support on early and gradual clinical contact experiences [50, 57, 63, 64] -Experiential courses emphasizing patient‒physician/dentist communication [64, 69] -Cognizant learning and teaching environment [42, 55] -Access to resources and courseware provided by institutions [21, 48, 51, 53, 56, 57, 68, 70]