Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of the training and testing cohorts.
| Characteristic | Training cohorta (n=27,360) | Testing cohortb (n=15,708) | |
| Age (years) | |||
|
|
Mean (SD) | 62.9 (14.0) | 62.1 (13.7) |
|
|
Median (IQR) | 62.7 (53.5-73.1) | 61.9 (53.2-71.7) |
| Sex, n (%) | |||
|
|
Male | 14,674 (53.6) | 8465 (53.9) |
|
|
Female | 12,686 (46.4) | 7243 (46.1) |
| BMI (kg/m2) | |||
|
|
Mean (SD) | 26.1 (4.7) | 26.0 (4.7) |
|
|
Median (IQR) | 25.7 (23-29) | 25.7 (22.9-29) |
| Number of visits for antidiabetic drugs, n (%) | 1,300,829 (76.1) | 636,863 (32.9) | |
|
|
Insulin and analogues | 130,938 (10.1) | 77,397 (12.2) |
|
|
Metformin | 207,513 (16) | 93,685 (14.7) |
|
|
Sulfonylureas | 38,770 (3) | 26,220 (4.1) |
|
|
α-glucosidase inhibitors | 9198 (0.7) | 3717 (0.6) |
|
|
Thiazolidinediones | 2617 (0.2) | 1088 (0.2) |
|
|
Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors | 55,064 (4.2) | 19,493 (3.1) |
|
|
Glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues | 1195 (0.1) | 195 (0.03) |
|
|
Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors | 2800 (0.2) | 1066 (0.2) |
|
|
Other blood glucose–lowering drugs, excluding insulins | 13,665 (1.1) | 13,089 (2.1) |
|
|
Combinations of oral blood glucose–lowering drugs | 839,069 (64.5) | 400,913 (63.0) |
| 5-year dementia, n (%) | 193 (0.7) | 125 (0.8) | |
| 10-year dementia, n (%) | 328 (1.2) | 185 (1.2) | |
| Comorbidities, n (%) | |||
|
|
Hyperlipidemia | 7769 (28.4) | 1494 (9.5) |
|
|
Hypertension | 8410 (30.7) | 2625 (16.7) |
|
|
Previous stroke | 732 (2.7) | 457 (2.9) |
|
|
Heart problemc | 2454 (9) | 705 (4.5) |
|
|
Chronic pulmonary disease | 805 (2.9) | 93 (0.6) |
|
|
Renal disease | 1075 (3.9) | 508 (3.2) |
|
|
Rheumatic disease | 67 (0.2) | 15 (0.1) |
|
|
Peptic ulcer disease | 832 (3) | 131 (0.8) |
|
|
Any malignancy | 332 (1.2) | 75 (0.5) |
|
|
Liver disease | 2085 (7.6) | 216 (1.4) |
|
|
Anemias | 601 (2.2) | 101 (0.6) |
|
|
Depressive disorder | 1075 (3.9) | 144 (0.9) |
|
|
Parkinson | 118 (0.4) | 50 (0.3) |
| Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) | |||
|
|
Mean (SD) | 5.16 (1.58) | 4.92 (1.42) |
|
|
Median (IQR) | 5 (4-6) | 5 (4-6) |
| Other medications (ATCd), n (%) | |||
|
|
Antacids (A02AA and A02AX) | 620 (2.3) | 84 (0.5) |
|
|
Drugs for peptic ulcer and gastroesophageal reflux disease (A02BA and A02BC) | 215 (0.8) | 91 (0.6) |
|
|
Gastrointestinal disorders (A03AX and A03FA) | 310 (1.1) | 54 (0.3) |
|
|
Liver therapy (A05BA) | 207 (0.8) | 33 (0.2) |
|
|
Laxatives (A06AB and A06AD) | 869 (3.2) | 140 (0.9) |
|
|
Antithrombotic (B01AA and B01AC) | 2888 (10.6) | 631 (4) |
|
|
Antianemic agents (B03BA, B03BB, and B03XA) | 592 (2.2) | 189 (1.2) |
|
|
Cardiac therapy (C01AA, C01BD, C01DA, and C01DX) | 1051 (3.8) | 271 (1.7) |
|
|
Antihypertensives (C02CA and C02DB) | 203 (0.7) | 63 (0.4) |
|
|
Diuretics (C03AA, C03BA, C03CA, and C03DA) | 1565 (5.7) | 278 (1.8) |
|
|
Purine derivatives (C04AD) | 382 (1.4) | 169 (1.1) |
|
|
β-blocking agents (C07AA, C07AB, and C07AG) | 2495 (9.1) | 450 (2.9) |
|
|
Calcium channel blockers (C08CA and C08DB) | 2552 (9.3) | 378 (2.4) |
|
|
Renin angiotensin (C09AA, C09CA, C09DB, and C09DX) | 3850 (14.1) | 518 (3.3) |
|
|
Lipid modifying agents (C10AA, C10AB, C10AX, and C10BA) | 3925 (14.3) | 525 (3.3) |
|
|
α-adrenoreceptor antagonists (G04CA) | 325 (1.2) | 44 (0.3) |
|
|
Glucocorticoids (H02AB) | 74 (0.3) | 17 (0.1) |
|
|
Thyroid hormones (H03AA) | 231 (0.8) | 33 (0.2) |
|
|
Anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic, nonsteroids (M01AB, M01AC, and M01AH) | 238 (0.9) | 77 (0.5) |
|
|
Antigout (M04AA, M04AB, and M04AC) | 892 (3.3) | 109 (0.7) |
|
|
Nervous system (N02AJ, N02BE, N03AE, N03AX, N04BA, N05AH, N05BA, N05BB, N05CD, N05CF, N06AA, N06AX, N06BX, N07AB, and N07CA) | 1956 (7.1) | 428 (2.7) |
|
|
Antihistamines (R06AE and R06AX) | 156 (0.6) | 42 (0.3) |
| Laboratory test, mean (SD) | |||
|
|
HbA1ce, % | 8.07 (2) | 8.63 (2.3) |
|
|
Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 163 (88.6) | 172 (76.1) |
|
|
Creatinine (mg/dL) | 1.19 (1.2) | 1.31 (1.6) |
|
|
Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 187 (43.6) | 199 (49.6) |
|
|
Triglyceride (mg/dL) | 167 (169) | 193 (267) |
aThe training cohort consisted of data from Taipei Medical University and Wan Fang Hospital.
bThe testing cohort consisted of data from Shuang Ho Hospital.
cHeart problem included heart failure, myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular disease, and peripheral vascular disease.
dATC: Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical.
eHbA1c: hemoglobin A1c.