Table 3.

Diagnostic and therapeutic applications of H. pylori OMVs and exosomes.

Category	Key Points	References
OMVs and Exosome-Based Strategies for targeted delivery of antimicrobial agents and immunomodulators	H. pylori OMVs and exosomes are promising candidates for immune modulation and targeted drug delivery in treating H. pylori infections, enhancing treatment efficacy while minimizing off-target effects.	(4, 21, 40, 110–112)
Engineering OMVs and Exosomes for specific targeting of H. pylori and modulation of host responses	OMVs and engineered exosomes have promising potential as innovative strategies for immune modulation and targeted therapeutic delivery in combating H. pylori infections, particularly in light of rising antibiotic resistance.	(3, 4, 30, 113–119)
Potential applications of OMVs and exosome therapy as an alternative or adjunct to antibiotics for H. pylori-related diseases	OMVs and engineered exosomes have promising potential as innovative strategies for immune modulation and targeted therapeutic delivery in combating H. pylori infections	(3, 4, 120, 121)
Identification of OMVs and exosomal biomarkers for early detection and monitoring of H. pylori infection	OMVs and exosomal biomarkers show significant potential in vaccine development and early detection of infections, facilitating robust immune responses and offering novel non-invasive diagnostic methods for effective management of H. pylori-related diseases.	(4, 9, 22, 39, 66, 122–124)
Non-invasive diagnostic tools utilizing H. pylori OMVs and exosomal biomarkers in the clinical management of H. pylori-associated diseases.	Recent studies highlight the potential of recombinant H. pylori OMVs and exosomal biomarkers as innovative diagnostic tools, enabling high-sensitivity tests and minimally invasive methods for early detection and monitoring of H. pylori infection and related diseases, thus enhancing personalized medicine approaches.	(125–131)