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. 2025 Jan 1;15(2):362–383. doi: 10.7150/thno.104502

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Mechanisms and effects of photobiomodulation (PBM). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of PBM (left): enhancement of mitochondrial function, activation of cytochrome c oxidase, elevation of calcium ion levels, increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) (antioxidant) activity, promotion of angiogenesis, and activation of transcription factors. Neurophysiological effects of PBM (right): enhancement of cerebral blood flow, modulation of neuroinflammation, reduction of neuronal apoptosis, promotion of neurogenesis, increased production of neurotrophins, and facilitation of meningeal lymphatic drainage. Created using BioRender.com.