Table 5.

Nanovaccine formulations for pulmonary administration.

Formulation	Infection	Excipients	Comments	Reference
Nanovesicles + liposomes	COVID-19	DPPC, DPPE, DPPG, Cholesterol	Demonstrated neutralisation of multiple coronavirus variants and effective at generating mucosal immunity	[178]
Liposomes	COVID-19	DPPC, DPPG, DPPE-PEG-COOH	Elicited stronger mucosal protective immunity compared to intramuscular or subcutaneous vaccination	[179]
Lipid nanoparticles	Influenza A	DMPE, DPSE, Cholesterol, DOPE, DSPC, DOTAP, DOTMA, DODA	All the mentioned lipids were tested, but the composition of the optimised composition is unspecified. Successfully delivered mRNA encoding antibodies against influenza A	[180]
Polymeric nanoparticles	Influenza A	CPTEG, CPH	Elicited robust systemic and mucosal humoral immune responses and enhanced systemic and lung-resident cellular immunity	[181]

Key: coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19); dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC); 1,2-bis(disphenylphosphino)ethane (DPPE); dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol (DPPG); polyethylene glycol (PEG); 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethyleneglycol)-2000] (DMPE); 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethyleneglycol)-2000] (DPSE); 1,2-dioleyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE); 1,2-dioleyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane (DOTAP); 1,2-di-O-octadecenyl-3-trimethylammonium propane (DOTMA); dimethyldioctadecylammonium (DODA); 1,8-bis(p-carboxyphenoxy)-3,6-dioxoctane (CPTEG); 1,6-bis(p-carboxyphenoxy)hexane (CPH).