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. 2024 Dec 20;14(24):2045. doi: 10.3390/nano14242045

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© 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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(a) TEM images of the TiO₂ NPs synthesized by TB/OA/OM = 1:6:4 molar ratio, the formation of spherical particles of TiO₂ NPs with an average size of 2–5 nm. (b) SEM images of the TiO₂ NPs with an aggregated spherical structure. (c) EDX of the TiO₂ NPs, showing the composition of carbon (C), oxygen (O), and titanium (Ti) elements. (d) XRD of the TiO₂ NPs.