Figure 1.

Lithium-induced effects on inflammation/neuroinflammation are not yet definite. This might be due to the variability in the methodology of the experiments. In vitro, animal and clinical studies report increased [43,54,58,64,68] anti-inflammatory cytokine levels. In animal models and in clinical trials decreased levels were also reported [27,60]. As for the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines—either an increase [54,65,67,68] or a decrease [27,43,57,59,60,65] were found in all three paradigms.