Table 2.

Main characteristics of studies included in the present systematic review.

Article	Nationality	Type of Study	Study Group	Control Group	Intervention	Comparison	Outcome Measure and Time-Point Assessments	Main Findings
Skaug et al. Br J Sports Med 2024 [34]	Norway	RCT	n = 22; 22F; mean age: 33.5; CrossFit or functional fitness training with stress urinary incontinence (SUI)	n = 25; 25F; mean age: 33.5; CrossFit or functional fitness training with SUI	PFMT 16-week program	No education on PFMT, lifestyle modifications, or other pelvic floor treatment options	Change in the total score of the ICIQ-UI-SF at baseline and at the end of 16 weeks of rehabilitative treatment	Mean difference between groups of −1.4 (95% CI: −2.6 to −0.2) in the change in ICIQ-UI-SF score in favor of the PFMT group; 64% in the PFMT group versus 8% in the control group reported improved symptoms of SUI (p < 0.001, relative risk: 7.96, 95% CI, 2.03 to 31.19)
Da Roza et al. Int Urogynecol J 2012 [35]	Portugal, Brazil, and Norway	Pilot study	n = 16; 16F; mean age: 20.0 ± 0.8 years, only 7 of them completed the 8-week program, nulliparous sport students with UI	None	PFMT 8-week program	None	Change in the total score of the ICIQ-UI-SF and PFM strength at baseline and at the end of 8 weeks program	Vaginal resting pressure improved by 17.4 cmH2O (SD 6.7), p  =  0.04, and MVC by 16.4 cmH2O (SD 5.8), p  =  0.04. ICIQ-UI-SF score and frequency and amount of leakage showed statistically significant improvement
Rivalta et al. Health Care Women Int. 2010 [36]	Italy	Observational studies	n = 3; 3F; mean age: 30.6 years, volleyball athletes affected by UI		BFB, functional electrical stimulation, PFMT, and vaginal cones		UI defined as the need for a pad or panty liner during sport or daily life at baseline and at the end of a 4-month rehabilitation program with urogynecological evaluation and a 48 h voiding diary and changes in PC test	Patients reported pad or panty liner usage of 1–2 per day at baseline. After the combined rehabilitation program, none of them reported UI requiring devices (pad or panty liner use), and the PC test improved in all of the athletes
Rodriguez-Longobardo et al. Urogynecology (Phila) 2023 [37]	USA	Prospective Cohort Study	n = 19; 19F; mean age of 13.21/−1.84; gymnasts with LUTSs (Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms)	None	Kegel exercises—12-week program	None	Change in the total score of the International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire—Female LUTS validated questionnaire at baseline and at the end of the 12-week intervention	No significant differences in LUTSs and quality of life variables were observed after the exercise intervention (p > 0.05)
Pires et al. International Journal of Sports Medicine 2020 [38]	USA and Germany	RCT	n = 7, 7F; mean age: 22.6 years; athletes, both continent and incontinent	n = 7, 7F; aged between 18 and 30 years; athletes, both continent and incontinent	PFMT 4-month program	No education on PFMT, lifestyle modifications, or other pelvic floor treatment options	MVC was evaluated with a perineometer, involuntary urine loss was evaluated with a pad test, and quality of life was evaluated with the King’s Health Questionnaire at baseline and at the end of the 4-month program	The experimental group improved MVC (p < 0.001) and reduced urine loss (p = 0.025). The percentage of urine loss decreased in the experimental group, from 71.4 to 42.9%
Ferreira et al. Revista da Associacao Medica Brasileira 2014 [39]	Portugal	RCT	n = 16; 16F; mean age: 19.4 years, female volleyball athletes with urinary leakage	n = 16; 16F; mean age: 19.1 years; female volleyball athletes with urinary leakage	PFMTRP 3-month program	No education on PFMT, lifestyle modifications, or other pelvic floor treatment options	Questionnaires, the pad test (amount of urinary leakage), and frequency record of urinary leakage (7-day diary) before and after 3 months of PFMRP	The amount of urine leakage decreased in 45.5% of athletes under PFMRP intervention and in 4.9% of athletes in the CG (p < 0.001). The reduction in the frequency of urinary leakage was 14.3% in the EG and 0.05% in the CG (p < 0.001)

Abbreviations: RCT (Randomized Control Trial); SUI (Stress Urinary Incontinence); biofeedback BFB PMFT (Pelvic Floor Muscle Training); ICIQ-UI-SF (International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire—Short Form); CI (Confidence Interval); UI (Urinary incontinence); MVC (Maximum Voluntary Contraction); PC test (Pubococcygeus test); LUTSs (Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms); PFMTRP (Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Rehabilitation Program); CG (Control Group).