Table 1.

Simulation parameter settings.

Parameter	Value/Range
Node Density	10 to 50 nodes per unit area
Signal Propagation Speed ($v_p$)	Speed of light
Path Loss Exponent ($\alpha$)	2 to 4 (depending on environment)
Noise Variance (${\sigma }_{ϵ}^2$)	Gaussian with zero mean
Initial Pulse Rate ($r_i$)	0.5
Loudness ($A_i$)	0.5
Frequency Range ($f_{\min }$ to $f_{\max }$)	0 to 2
Decay Factor for Pulse Rate ($\gamma$)	0.9
Decay Factor for Loudness ($\alpha$)	0.9
Clustering Parameters (DBSCAN)	$minPts=4$, $ϵ$ adapted per scenario
Adaptive Frequency Modulation Factor	0.1 to 2.0
Maximum Iterations (AFM-BO)	100 to 200
Population Size (AFM-BO)	50 to 100
Detection Threshold	Adjusted per simulation scenario