Table 1.
Characteristics of included articles (N = 298)
| Characteristic | Number of articles (n, %) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Out of total (N = 298) |
Out of quantitative operationalizations (N = 102) | Out of qualitative operationalizations (N = 68) | Out of non-operationalizations (N = 131) |
|
| Setting | ||||
| United States | 163, 55 | 57, 56 | 29, 43 | 80, 61 |
| Multi-country, Europe | 20, 7 | 17, 17 | 1, 1 | 2, 2 |
| Canada | 17, 6 | 0, 0 | 12, 18 | 5, 4 |
| Australia | 15, 5 | 6, 6 | 2, 3 | 7, 5 |
| Multi-continent | 12, 4 | 4, 4 | 5, 7 | 3, 2 |
| Israel | 5, 2 | 2, 2 | 3, 4 | 0, 0 |
| United Kingdom | 5, 1 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 | 3, 2 |
| Italy | 4, 1 | 2, 2 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Singapore | 4, 1 | 0, 0 | 3, 4 | 1, 1 |
| Sweden | 4, 1 | 3, 3 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 |
| Taiwan | 4, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 3, 2 |
| India | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 3, 2 |
| Brazil | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 |
| China | 2, 1 | 2, 2 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 |
| Germany | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Hong Kong | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Lebanon | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Romania | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 |
| South Africa | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 0 |
| Uganda | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |
| Zambia | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| Other single countrya | 18, 6 | 3, 3 | 6, 9 | 9, 7 |
| Other multi-countryb | 3, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| N/Ac | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 1, 1 |
| Stigmatized status(es) of interest | ||||
| Single status (n = 227) | ||||
| Sexual minority status | 107, 36 | 52, 51 | 4, 6 | 51, 39 |
| Mental health | 32, 11 | 10, 10 | 14, 21 | 10, 8 |
| Gender minority status | 19, 6 | 9, 9 | 5, 7 | 5, 4 |
| HIV | 13, 4 | 2, 2 | 5, 7 | 6, 5 |
| Substance use | 8,3 | 1, 1 | 7, 10 | 0, 0 |
| Dementia | 7, 3 | 4, 4 | 2, 3 | 1, 1 |
| Immigrant status or displacement | 5, 2 | 2, 2 | 1, 1 | 2, 2 |
| Welfare receipt | 4, 2 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 | 2, 2 |
| Abortion | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 1, 1 |
| Race/ethnicity | 3, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 1 |
| Sexual violence | 3, 1 | 2, 2 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |
| Age | 2, 1 | 2, 2 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 |
| Disability | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Gender | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Polyamory | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Sex work | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| Space | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Other single statusd | 11, 4 | 0, 0 | 7, 10 | 4, 3 |
| Multiple statuses (n = 71) | ||||
| Sexual minority status, gender minority status | 33, 11 | 7, 7 | 7, 10 | 19, 15 |
| HIV, race/ethnicity, sexual minority status | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 3, 2 |
| Immigrant status or displacement, sexual minority status | 3, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Race/ethnicity, sexual minority status | 3, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Gender, sexual minority status | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Hepatitis C, substance use | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| HIV, sex work | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| HIV, sexual minority status, | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Race/ethnicity, sexual minority status, gender minority status | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |
| Other multiple statusese | 19, 6 | 6, 6 | 3, 4 | 11, 8 |
| Definition given | ||||
| Yes | 159, 53 | 74, 73 | 45, 66 | 42, 32 |
| Only examples | 27, 9 | 8, 8 | 3, 4 | 16, 12 |
| No | 112, 38 | 20, 20 | 20, 29 | 73, 56 |
| Cited source of the structural stigma concepte | ||||
| Hatzenbuehler & Link 2014 | 84, 28 | 32, 31 | 20, 29 | 32, 24 |
| Hatzenbuehler 2016 | 40, 13 | 21, 21 | 4, 6 | 15, 11 |
| Hatzenbuehler 2014 | 16, 5 | 4, 4 | 2, 3 | 10, 8 |
| Link & Phelan 2001 | 16, 5 | 7, 7 | 3, 4 | 6, 5 |
| Hatzenbuehler et al. 2014 (retracted) | 10, 3 | 2, 2 | 0, 0 | 8, 6 |
| Corrigan, Markowitz, & Watson 2004 | 7, 2 | 2, 2 | 4, 6 | 1, 1 |
| White Hughto, Reisner, & Pachankis 2015 | 7,2 | 2, 2 | 5, 7 | 0, 0 |
| Hatzenbuehler 2017 (Handbook) | 6, 2 | 3, 3 | 1, 1 | 2, 2 |
| Hatzenbuehler, Phelan, & Link 2013 | 6, 2 | 4, 4 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Corrigan, Watson, Heyrman et al. 2005 | 5, 2 | 2, 2 | 1, 1 | 2, 21 |
| Hatzenbuehler, Jun, Corliss & Austin 2014 | 5, 2 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 4, 3 |
| Pachankis et al. 2021 | 4, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 4, 3 |
| Corrigan, Watson, Gracia et al. 2005 | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 1, 1 |
| Hatzenbuehler, Keyes, & Hasin 2009 | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 2, 2 |
| Pachankis & Bränström 2018 | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 3, 2 |
| Pachankis et al. 2015 | 3, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Pachankis, Hatzenbuehler & Starks 2014 | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 3, 2 |
| Bos et al. 2013 | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Corrigan & Kleinlein 2005 | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |
| Corrigan, Kerr, & Knudsen 2005 | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| Hannem & Bruckert 2012 | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| Hatzenbuehler 2009 | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Hatzenbuehler 2017 (JCCAP) | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 |
| Hatzenbuehler, McLaughlin, Keyes, & Hasin 2010 | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Link & Phelan 2014 | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |
| Major, Dovidio, & Link 2018 | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Pescosolido & Martin 2015 | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| Pincus 1996 | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 |
| Schulze & Angermeyer 2003 | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |
| Yang et al. 2007 | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| Other | 74, 25 | 16, 16 | 29, 43 | 31, 24 |
| No source cited | 66, 22 | 17, 17 | 13, 19 | 37, 28 |
| Additional theories or conceptual frameworks usedf | ||||
| Minority stress | 75, 25 | 28, 27 | 5, 7 | 42, 32 |
| Minority stress, other | 17, 6 | 7, 7 | 1, 1 | 9, 7 |
| Intersectionality, minority stress | 9, 3 | 2, 2 | 1, 1 | 6, 5 |
| Intersectionality | 6, 2 | 1, 1 | 3, 4 | 2, 2 |
| Intersectionality, other | 4, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 2, 2 |
| Social ecological model | 4, 1 | 1, 1 | 2, 3 | 1, 1 |
| Foucauldian thought | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 3, 4 | 0, 0 |
| Intersectionality, intersectional stigma | 3, 1 | 0, 0 | 3, 4 | 0, 0 |
| Fundamental cause theory | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 |
| Goffman (1963) | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| Intersectionality, minority stress, other | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 | 1, 1 |
| Minority stress, sexual stigma conceptual framework | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 1, 1 | 0, 0 |
| Minority stress, social ecological model | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| Sexual stigma conceptual framework | 2, 1 | 2, 2 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 |
| Territorial stigmatization | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 0, 0 | 2, 2 |
| White Hughto et al.’s (2015) multilevel model of stigma toward trans people | 2, 1 | 0, 0 | 2, 3 | 0, 0 |
| Other single conceptual framework | 36, 12 | 9, 9 | 10, 15 | 17, 13 |
| Other multiple conceptual frameworks | 20, 7 | 3, 3 | 9, 13 | 9, 7 |
| N/A | 105, 35 | 46, 45 | 24, 35 | 37, 28 |
Handbook = The Oxford Handbook of Stigma, Discrimination, and Health; JCCAP = Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology
a Includes: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Barbados, Colombia, Czechia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, France, Indonesia, Ireland, Malaysia, Nigeria, Poland, Rwanda, Senegal, South Korea, Tanzania, and Thailand
b Includes: Multi-country (Africa), Multi-country (Asia-Pacific), and Multi-country (North America)
c Includes: Analysis of Reddit data, Analysis of documentary films, and Analysis of text of scientific research articles
d Includes: Albinism, Autism, Cancer, Chronic pain, COVID-19, Fatness, Incarceration, Non-dominant language use, Occupation (coaching), Parkinson’s disease, and Use of local foods and medicines
e Includes: Age and disability; Age and sexual minority status; Gender minority status and abortion; Gender minority status and veteran status; Gender, immigrant status, sexual minority status, and socioeconomic status; Gender and race/ethnicity; General structural stigma; HIV and gender (motherhood); HIV and incarceration; HIV and PrEP use; HIV, sexual minority status, and substance use; Immigrant status and mental health; Mental health and race/ethnicity; Mental health and substance use; Race/ethnicity, sexual minority status, and disability; Race/ethnicity, sexual minority status, and gender; Race/ethnicity, sexual minority status, smoking, and socioeconomic status; Race/ethnicity, sexual minority status, and socioeconomic status; and Sexual minority status, gender minority status, and age
e “Other” sources cited are provided in Additional File 2
f “Other” theories or conceptual frameworks used are provided in Additional File 2