Table 3.

Summary of biological functions of milk-derived EV.

Function		Origins	Therapeutic agent	Mechanism	References
Immunomodulatory function		Human	MHC II, TGF-β, miRNA	Regulation of immune-related factors (such as proteins and miRNAs)	(7, 74, 76, 122)
		Bovine	Butyrophilin (BTN), miRNA		(79, 81, 123)
Improvement of intestinal function		Human	EGF, TGF-β	Promotes intestinal cell proliferation, reduces intestinal cell damage, treats inflammation and safeguards intestinal barrier development	(23, 88, 93)
		Porcine			(86)
		Bovine			(94, 95)
		Yak			(95)
Inflammation prevention function		Human	Lipid	Regulation of intestinal epithelial cell function via the ERK/MAPK pathway	(96)
		Bovine		Reduced production of MCP-1, IL-6 by splenocytes	(98)
		Porcine	miR-4334, miR-219, and miR-338	Reduction of inflammatory response via NF-κb; inhibition of apoptosis via the p53 pathway	(100)
Other functions	Hypertriglyceridemia	Human	CD36	Promotes intestinal fat absorption and may also serve as a therapeutic target for disease	(101)
	Myocardial disease		TGF-β	Regulates and activates cellular phenotype and function	(102)
	Coagulation		TF	Accelerates the action of clotting factors	(103, 104)
	Inhibition of virus growth		MFG-E8	Inhibits viral attachment to host cells	(105)
	Promotes bone development	Bovine		Induction of proliferation and differentiation of human osteoblasts Saos-2	(108)
	Inhibits melanin production		miRNA-2478	Reduces the expression of the target gene Rapla and decreases melanogenesis through the Akt-GSK3β signaling pathway	(109)
	Promote wound healing			Facilitate the transition of inflammation to tissue	(85)
	Reducing cardiac fibrosis			Pro-angiogenic growth factor was significantly enhanced	(111)
	Promotes hair regrowth		Active protein	By activating the Wnt/ β-catenin pathway, DP cell proliferation is induced, and hair regeneration is accelerated	(112)

EV, extracellular vesicle.