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. 2025 Jan 2;16:58. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-54785-y

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 6 — SEM images of the enamel repaired by GCPC under oscillation condition (80 rpm) for 30 min (A, B), 24 h (C, D) and 48 h (E, F). Inset: the boundary between GCPC treatment (blue) and non-treatment areas. Microhardness of different enamel samples after repair for 30 min (G) and 24 h (H). Sound, etched, 2 wt% NaF, CPP-ACP, GCPC, and 3X-GCPC correspond to the samples of sound enamel, etched enamel (blank group), enamels repaired by 2 wt% NaF, CPP-ACP paste, GCPC and 3X-GCPC in static artificial saliva respectively; Harsh GCPC represents the enamel repaired by GCPC under oscillation condition. Statistical differences are assessed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s multiple comparisons test. The asterisk (*) denotes significant differences between the indicated group and the etched group (p values higher than 0.001 are displayed above the asterisks). The error bars represent the mean ± SD for n = 3 independent experiments, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001; no data were excluded from the analyses.