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. 2025 Jan 4;16:398. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-55715-8

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — a Evolution of the dissociation layer thickness with the PAA concentration at a certain treatment time of 8 h. b Evolution of the dissociation layer thickness with the PAA treatment time at a certain concentration of 10%. c Evolution of the dissociation-lubrication layer modulus with the PAA concentration at a certain treatment time of 8 h. d Evolution of the dissociation-layer modulus with the PAA treatment time at a certain concentration of 10%. e Evolution of the surface friction coefficient for the dissociation layer with the PAA concentration at a certain treatment time of 8 h. f Evolution of the friction coefficient for the dissociation layer with the PAA treatment time at a certain concentration of 10%. g Changes in the surface friction coefficients and contact stresses for the dissociation layer under different normal loads. h Comparisons of the friction coefficient and contact pressure between the reported lubricous hydrogels and those used in this work. i Real-time and long-period (100,000 cycles) friction coefficient curve for the SLH sample under a high contact pressure of 8.48 MPa (treatment time: 2 h, PAA concentration: 10%). Note: for all box plots, the horizontal line within box represents the data value located in the middle sequence number, the upward bar represents the maximum data value and the downward bar represents the minimum data value, solid dot within box represents the average value.