Table 1. Immune-enhancement mechanisms of some reported probiotics [1].

Probiotic organism	Functions	Mechanisms	Reference
Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MON03	Toxin detoxification	Binding via surface structures	Jebali et al. [156]
Lentilactobacillus kefiri KFLM3, Saccharomyces cerevisiae KFGY7, Acetobacter syzygii KFGM1	Toxin detoxification	Adsorption and biotransformation	Taheur et al. [157]
Lactobacillus helveticus ATCC 12046	Toxin detoxification	Binding via surface structures	Ismail et al. [158]
Bacillus licheniformis CFR1	Toxin detoxification	Enzymic degradation	Rao et al. [43]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae HR 125a	Toxin detoxification	Binding via surface structures	Ismail et al. [158]
Lactococcus lactis JF 3102, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum NRRL B-4496	Toxin detoxification	Binding via surface structures	Ismail et al. [158]
Streptomyces cacaoi subsp. asoensis K234, Streptomyces luteogriseus K144, Streptomyces rimosus K145	Toxin detoxification	Enzymic degradation	Harkai et al. [159]
Several other Lactobacillus strains	IgA secretion	Stimulation of dendritic cells to produce IL-6	Kikuchi et al. [69]
	IgA secretion	Stimulation of dendritic cells to produce TGF-β	Sakai et al. [160]
	Enhancement of natural killer (NK) cell activity	Stimulation of IL-12 secretion	Takeda et al. [68]
	Inhibition of Th2 activity	Stimulation of IL-12 secretion	Fujiwara et al. [161]
	Inhibition of Th2 activity	Stimulation of activated T-cell death	Kanzato et al. [162]
	Improvement of oral tolerance	Induction of Tregs	Aoki-Yoshida et al. [163]
	Reduced inflammation	Reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines bydown-regulation of TLR-signals	Shimazu et al. [164]
	Toxin detoxification	Binding via surface structures	Chlebicz and Śliżewska [165]
Several other Bifidobacterium strains	Reduced inflammation	Induction of IFN-β	Kawashima et al. [166]
	IgA production	Upregulation of pIgR expression	Nakamura et al. [167]
	Modulation of anti-viral activity	Reduced A20 and improved IRF-3, IFN-β, MxA, and RNase L	Ishizuka et al. [168]
	Protection from enteropathogenic infection	Production of acetate and enhancement of intestinal defense with epithelial cells	Fukuda et al. [169]
	Allergy inhibition	Suppression of Th2 chemokines	Iwabuchi et al. [170]
	Reduced inflammation	Inhibition of IL-17	Miyauchi et al. [171]