Table 2.

LIFU Trials in Sensory Perception.

Author, year	Sonication target	LIFU parameters	Outcome measures	Findings	Adverse events
Badran et al,27 2022	Right anterior thalamus	FF: 0.65 MHz PRF: 0.00001 MHz PW: 5 ms DC: 5% SD: 30 s ISI: 30 s ISPTA: 0.719 W/cm2* ISPPA: not reported MI: not reported Total duration: 20 min Sham controlled: yes	QST	Attenuation of the sensory component to pain perception Significant increase in thermal pain thresholds Blunted sensitization to thermal stimuli	None
Legon et al,28 2014	SI	FF: 0.5 MHz PRF: 0.001 MHz PW: 0.36 ms DC: 36% SD: 0.5 s ISI: 6 s ISPTA: not reported ISPPA: 5.895 W/cm2 MI: 1.13 Total duration: 120 sonications Sham controlled: yes	Sensory-evoked brain activity Sensory discrimination task	Significant attenuation of the SEP amplitudes Significant modulation of spectral content sensory-evoked brain oscillations Above changes not present when LIFU shifted 1 cm anterior or 1 cm posterior Enhanced performance on sensory discrimination tasks	None
Liu et al,66 2021	SI	FF: 0.5 MHz PRF: 0.0003 MHz PW: 0.2 ms DC: 6% SD: 0.5 s ISI: 2 s ISPTA: 0.06713 W/cm2 ISPPA: 1.10 W/cm2 MI: not reported Total duration: 56 sonications Sham controlled: yes	Somatosensory cortical activity Sensory discrimination task	Excitatory neuromodulatory effects at S1 Higher source profile amplitude at S1 Enhanced performance on sensory discrimination task	None
Lee et al,67 2015	SI	FF: 0.25 MHz PRF: 0.0005 MHz PW: 1 ms DC: 50% SD: 0.3 s ISI: 2.7 s ISPTA: 0.35 W/cm2 ISPPA: maximum 2.5 W/cm2 MI: 0.62 Total duration: 200 sonications Sham controlled: yes	LIFU evoked sensations Somatosensory cortical activity Safety	Elicited explicit tactile sensations Sensations occurred in the hand area contralateral to the sonicated hemisphere Stimulatory effects were transient and reversible Cortical evoked potentials akin to classical SEP generated by median nerve stimulation No acute neurologic or neuroradiologic abnormalities after stimulation	None
Lee et al,68 2016	SI SII	FF: 0.21 MHz PRF: 0.0005 MHz PW: 1 ms DC: 50% SD: 0.5 s ISI: 6.5 s ISPTA: 3.5–4.4 W/cm2 ISPPA: 7.0–8.8 W/cm2 MI: not reported Total duration: 20 sonications Sham controlled: yes	LIFU evoked sensations across different target regions	Simultaneous stimulation of the SI/SII in the same hemisphere and elicited various tactile sensations Stimulation of the SII area induced perception of tactile sensations Multiple FUS transducers can be used for simultaneous stimulation of different targets	None
Legon et al,69 2018	Ventro-posterior lateral nucleus of the thalamus	FF: 0.5 MHz PRF: 0.001 MHz PW: 0.36 ms DC: 36% SD: 0.5s ISI: 4 s ISPTA: not reported ISPPA: 7.03 W/cm2 MI: 0.56 Total duration: 300 sonications Sham controlled: yes	Activity of unilateral sensory thalamus and cortical somatosensory SI area Acoustic modeling Sensory discrimination task	Inhibited the SEP amplitude at unilateral sensory thalamu No effect of LIFU on somatosensory cortex SI area Frequency inhibition in mostly beta and gamma power Skull produces some LIFU beam distortion Significantly worse than chance on a discrimination task	None
Hameroff et al,70 2013	Fronto-temporal cortex	Unfocused transcranial ultrasound FF: 8 MHz PRF: N/A PW: N/A DC: N/A SD: 15 s ISI: N/A ISPTA: 0.152 W/cm2 ISPPA: N/A MI: 0.7 Total duration: 15 s Sham controlled: yes	VAMS NRS Vital signs	Significant improvement in global affect at 10 min Significant improvement in global affect at 40 min Slight improvement in pain ratings (NRS) 40 min No changes in any vital signs 40 min after exposure	None
Legon et al,71 2023	AI PI	FF: 0.5 MHz PRF: 0.001 MHz PW: 0.36 ms DC: 36% SD: 1 s ISI: 12–20 s ISPTA: not reported ISPPA: 3.5 W/cm2* MI: not reported Total duration: 40 sonications Sham controlled: yes	CHEP Autonomic measures Pain ratings	LIFU of PI affected earlier EEG amplitudes ~300 ms LIFU of AI affected EEG amplitudes ~500 ms LIFU to both AI and PI reduced the amplitude at 824–903 ms LIFU to both AI and PI reduced perceived pain ratings LIFU of the AI affected HRV	None

AI, anterior insula; CHEP, contact head evoked potentials; HRV, heart rate variability; ISI, interstimulus interval (s); NRS, numerical rating scale; PI, posterior insula; QST, quantitative sensory thresholding; SI, primary hand somatosensory cortex; SII, secondary hand somatosensory cortex; SEP, sensory evoked potentials; VAMS, Visual Analog Mood Scale.

Total duration is reported in total time of LIFU intervention or the number of sonications delivered in one session.

^*Intensity reported is not the intracranial estimation. The reported values represent either the intensity measured in freeform water or a parameter output of the LIFU system. Both values can be used to estimate intracranial intensity.