Table 1.
Characteristics of studies.
| Author | Region | Study design | Sample size | T2DM | GDM criteria | T2DM criteria | Risk factors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| JONATHAN R. STEINHART-1997 | America | Retrospective | 111 | 47 | NA | WHO | FBG; spontaneous abortions; GTT total; recurrent GDM; insulin use |
| Siri L-1998 | America | Retrospective | 904 | 169 | NDDG | NDDG | Contraception |
| NAM H. CHO1-2005 | Korea | Prospective | 170 | 18 | NDDG | WHO | Age; Gestational age at diagnosis of GDM; Pre-pregnancy BMI; Positive family history of diabetes; Higher FBG; Higher homocysteine level |
| N. Wah Cheung-2005 | Australia | Retrospective | 102 | 30 | NA | NA | BMI; FBG; OGTT 2-h; Insulin use in pregnancy |
| NAM H. CHO2-2005 | Korea | Prospective | 909 | 116 | NDDG | NDDG | Suprailiac skin fold thickness; tricep skin fold thickness; waist/hip ratio; BMI; subscapular skin fold thickness; weight; waist |
| Anny H Xiang-2006 | America | Prospective | 526 | 106 | NA | ADA | Depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate |
| Kristian Lo¨bner-2006 | Germany | Prospective | 302 | 130 | German Diabetes Association | ADA | Autoantibody positive; Insulin in pregnancy; BMI; Previous pregnancies |
| Anna J Lee-2007 | Australia | Retrospective | 5,470 | 405 | ADPSG | WHO, 1998 | Race; height; age; parity; BMI; birth weight; BwtGC; gestational age; insulin use in pregnancy; family history of diabetes; FBG; 1-h blood glucose; 2-h blood glucose |
| C Russell-2007 | Canada | Retrospective | 1,401 | 251 | Canadian Diabetes Association | NA | Weight; insulin use; neonatal hypoglycemia; subsequent pregnancies GDM |
| Anny H. Xiang-2010 | Spain | Prospective | 72 | 31 | NA | ADA | Intravenous glucose tolerance tests; basal glucose clearance; OGTT total area; OGTT-30 insulin; weight change; additional pregnancy; progestin-only method |
| Christian S. Go¨bl-2011 | Austria | Prospective | 110 | 23 | IADPSG | WHO | OGTT; Age; HDL-C; Insulin during pregnancy; RRS/RRD; TG; BMI; WC; FPG |
| A. H. Xiang-2011 | America | Retrospective | 12,998 | 1539 | IADPSG | ADA | Race |
| Tobias DK-2012 | America | Prospective | 4,413 | 491 | NA | NDDG | Healthful dietary patterns |
| Yujie Wang-2012 | America | Prospective | 1,142 | 327 | ADA | WHO | Age; BMI; race |
| Denice S. Feig-2013 | Canada | Retrospective | 3,576 | 1292 | NA | NA | Preeclampsia; gestational hypertension |
| Bao W-2014 | America | Prospective | 4,554 | 635 | NA | NDDG | Physical activity and sedentary behaviors |
| Huikun Liu-2014 | China | Retrospective | 1,263 | 83 | WHO | ADA | BMI |
| R.Retnakaran-2015 | Canada | Retrospective | 23,363 | 5483 | NA | NA | Pathophysiology; sex of the baby |
| Claire E Eades-2015 | Scotland | Prospective | 164 | 41 | an FBG of over 5.5 mmol/l-1 or blood glucose reading two hours (2 h BG) after an OGTT of over 9 mmol/l-1 | WHO | Weight gain during pregnancy; use of insulin during pregnancy; HbA1c levels at diagnosis of GDM; FBG |
| Valizadeh M-2015 | Iran | Retrospective | 110 | 36 | NA | NA | Parity; delivery and follow-up lab test interval; FBG; maternal weight; BMI; waist circumference; neonatal birth weight; age; family history of diabetes mellitus; history of delivering macrosomic neonate; insulin use |
| Joon Ho Moon-2015 | Korea | Prospective | 418 | 53 | NDDG | ADA | Postpartum BMI change |
| Pei-Chao LIN-2015 | China | Retrospective | 71 | 29 | NDDG | ADA | BMI; Insulin use during pregnancy |
| Piotr Molęda-2016 | Poland | Retrospective | 199 | 13 | OGTTs | WHO | Uric acid |
| Catherine R Chamberlain-2016 | Australia | Retrospective | 289 | 82 | ADPSG | WHO | BMI; breastfeeding; |
| Bao W1-2016 | America | Prospective | 3,976 | 641 | NA | ADA | Habitual iron intake |
| Bao W2-2016 | America | Prospective | 1,695 | 259 | NA | ADA | BMI; weight change |
| Bao W3-2016 | America | Prospective | 4,502 | 722 | NA | ADA | Low-carbohydrate diets scores |
| Deirdre K-2018 | America | Retrospective | 347 | 172 | NA | NA | Dietary Intakes; circulating concentrations of branched-chain amino acids |
| Casagrande SS-2018 | America | Prospective | 568 | 112 | NA | NA | Age; years since GDM diagnosis; family history of diabetes; BMI; education |
| Yukari Kugishima-2018 | Japan | Retrospective | 306 | 32 | IADPSG | WHO | BMI; 2-h PG; HbA1c; Insulin therapy during pregnancy |
| Judith Bernstein-2019 | Boston | Retrospective | 1,091 | 58 | NA | NA | GDM recurrence; delivery interval |
| Tawanda Chivese-2019 | South Africa | Retrospective | 150 | 47 | IADPSG | WHO, 2006 | Waist circumference; Hip circumference; BMI; age at follow-up; secondary and matric education; dyslipidemia; hypertension; family history of diabetes; total physical activity |
| Ley SH-2020 | America | Retrospective | 4,372 | 873 | NA | NDDG | Lactation duration |
| Kawasaki M-2020 | East Asia | Retrospective | 399 | 43 | Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology criteria; IADPSG criteria | WHO | BMI; ppOGTT 2-h plasma glucose; ppOGTT HbA1c ≥5.7% age at childbirth; family history of diabetes; GDM diagnosis before 20 weeks gestation; use of insulin during pregnancy; macrosomia |
| Dayeon Shin-2021 | Korea | Prospective | 629 | NA | NA | T2DM refers to a woman diagnosed with diabetes by a doctor or an FBG level ≥126 mg/dL. | Pre-pregnancy BMI |
| Pandora L. Wander-2021 | America | Prospective | 335 | / | NA | ADA | Adiposity and related biomarkers; sex hormone-binding globulin; alanine aminotransferase |
| Stefanie N Hinkle-2021 | America | Retrospective | 4,740 | 897 | NA | NDDG | Habitual alcohol consumption |
| Chiou YL-2021 | China | Prospective | 57 | 24 | NA | HbA1c ≥ 6.5% | Education level; pre-pregnancy BMI; 100-g OGTT FBG; 100-g OGTT 1-h blood glucose; 75-g OGTT FBG; 75-g OGTT 2-h blood glucose |
| Anna J Wood-2021 | Australia | Prospective | 82 | 11 | IADPSG; WHO | WHO | Demographics; age; multiparity; family history of diabetes; increased glucose values; insulin use; BMI |
| Enav Yefet-2022 | Israel | Retrospective | 788 | 178 | NA | NDDG | Recurrent GDM; maternal and obstetrical characteristics of the GDM pregnancy; the consecutive pregnancy including BMI gain and inter-pregnancy interval |
| Jiaxi Yang-2022 | America | Prospective | 4,522 | 979 | NDDG | ADA | Habitual coffee consumption |
| Mi Jin Choi-2022 | Korea | Retrospective | 5,781 | 302 | ADA | WHO | BMI; FBG; age; family history of diabetes; hypertension; insulin use during pregnancy |
| Roosa P-2022 | Finland | Prospective | 96,353 | 5370 | IADPSG | NA | Insulin therapy during GDM |
| Yumei Wei-2022 | China | Retrospective | 1,002 | 23 | IADPSG | ADA | Pre-pregnancy BMI; age; IFG; history of macrosomia; weight change between twice pregnancy; gestational interval |
| Amir Naeh | Israel | Retrospective | 1,812 | 119 | NDDG | WHO | Multifetal pregnancy |
| Deirdre K Tobias-2024 | America | Prospective | 350 | 175 | NA | ADA | Metabolomics score; amino acid and lipid sub‐scores |
GTT, Glucose Tolerance Test; GDM, Gestational Diabetes Mellitus; BMI, Body Mass Index; FBG, Fasting Blood Glucose; OGTT, Oral Glucose Tolerance Test; BwtGC, Birth Weight Gestational Centile; HDL-C, High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol; RRS/RRD, Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure; TG, Triglycerides; WC, Waist Circumference; FPG, Fasting Plasma Glucose; PG, Plasma Glucose; PP, Postpartum; PM, Particulate Matter.
NA, Not Applicable.