Table 4.
Subgroup analysis of risk factors for the development of T2DM in GDM women.
| Risk factors | No. of studies | Heterogeneity | OR (95% CI) | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I² (%) | p | ||||
| Age | 12 | 95.9 | 0.000 | 1.71 (1.23, 2.38) | 0.001 |
| Location | |||||
| North America | 2 | 0 | 0.882 | 5.28 (4.29, 6.51) | <0.001 |
| Asia | 5 | 45.2 | 0.121 | 1.31 (1.09, 1.58) | 0.091 |
| Oceania | 2 | 84.5 | 0.011 | 1.27 (0.79, 2.05) | 0.329 |
| Europe | 2 | 0 | 0.717 | 2.78 (1.43, 5.39) | 0.002 |
| Africa | 1 | - | - | 0.90 (0.80, 1.01) | 0.064 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 7 | 76 | 0.000 | 1.43 (0.94, 2.18) | 0.092 |
| >500 | 5 | 98.4 | 0.000 | 2.17 (1.02, 4.61) | 0.045 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 6 | 71.9 | 0.003 | 1.07 (0.92, 1.24) | 0.361 |
| Prospective | 6 | 82.8 | 0.000 | 3.01 (1.65, 5.46) | <0.001 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| ADA | 2 | 95.3 | 0.000 | 3.04 (1.00, 9.22) | 0.049 |
| IADPSG | 3 | 57.7 | 0.094 | 1.61 (1.11, 2.33) | 0.011 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 2.03 (0.68, 6.04) | 0.203 |
| Others | 4 | 69.5 | 0.02 | 0.97 (0.83, 1.12) | 0.665 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| WHO | 9 | 96.9 | 0.000 | 1.66 (1.12, 2.46) | 0.011 |
| ADA | 1 | - | - | 1.28 (1.01, 1.62) | 0.038 |
| Insulin use in pregnancy | 14 | 82.6 | 0.000 | 4.35 (3.17, 5.96) | <0.001 |
| Location | |||||
| North America | 2 | 0 | 0.623 | 3.81 (2.11, 6.88) | <0.001 |
| Asia | 5 | 79.8 | 0.000 | 4.44 (1.86, 10.56) | 0.001 |
| Oceania | 4 | 71.9 | 0.014 | 5.34 (2.63, 10.83) | <0.001 |
| Europe | 3 | 0 | 0.424 | 3.82 (3.58, 4.08) | <0.001 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 10 | 24.9 | 0.215 | 3.54 (2.77, 4.53) | <0.001 |
| >500 | 4 | 95.1 | 0.000 | 6.08 (3.36, 10.99) | <0.001 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 9 | 78.5 | 0.000 | 4.52 (2.76, 7.42) | <0.001 |
| Prospective | 5 | 0 | 0.597 | 3.82 (3.59, 4.08) | <0.001 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| ADA | 1 | - | - | 9.83 (5.78, 16.74) | <0.001 |
| IADPSG | 3 | 0 | 0.447 | 3.36 (1.73, 6.54) | <0.001 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 19.66 (4.00, 96.66) | <0.001 |
| Others | 7 | 89.6 | 0.000 | 4.03 (2.71, 5.98) | <0.001 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| WHO | 8 | 79.3 | 0.000 | 4.30 (2.47, 7.48) | <0.001 |
| ADA | 2 | 65.7 | 0.088 | 7.74 (2.03, 29.48) | 0.003 |
| FBG | 12 | 96 | 0.000 | 1.58 (1.36, 1.84) | <0.001 |
| Location | |||||
| North America | 1 | - | - | 11.05 (1.65, 74.09) | 0.013 |
| Asia | 6 | 95.5 | 0.000 | 2.28 (1.11, 4.68) | 0.024 |
| Oceania | 4 | 81 | 0.001 | 1.59 (1.20, 2.11) | 0.001 |
| Europe | 1 | - | - | 3.94 (0.92, 16.89) | 0.065 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 9 | 79.3 | 0.000 | 2.34 (1.47, 3.70) | <0.001 |
| >500 | 3 | 99.1 | 0.000 | 1.46 (1.21, 1.77) | <0.001 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 6 | 98 | 0.000 | 1,57 (1.32, 1.87) | <0.001 |
| Prospective | 6 | 76 | 0.001 | 1.93 (1.10, 3.40) | 0.022 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| ADA | 1 | - | - | 4.89 (3.51, 6.81) | <0.001 |
| IADPSG | 2 | 36.7 | 0.209 | 2.54 (1.61, 4.02) | 0.002 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 4.00 (1.41, 11.41) | 0.009 |
| Others | 3 | 71.2 | 0.031 | 1.36 (1.09, 1.71) | 0.007 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| WHO | 9 | 91.6 | 0.000 | 2.27 (1.37, 3.78) | 0.002 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 1.03 (1.02, 1.05) | <0.001 |
| Hypertension | 4 | 96.6 | 0.000 | 5.19 (1.31, 20.51) | 0.019 |
| Location | |||||
| North America | 1 | - | - | 18.49 (17.12, 19.96) | <0.001 |
| Asia | 1 | - | - | 2.21 (1.34, 3.65) | 0.002 |
| Oceania | 1 | - | - | 3.29 (1.41, 7.68) | 0.006 |
| Africa | 1 | - | - | 5.00 (1.60, 15.61) | 0.006 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 2 | 0 | 0.563 | 3.82 (1.93, 7.54) | <0.001 |
| >500 | 2 | 98.5 | 0.000 | 6.49 (0.81, 52.02) | 0.078 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 3 | 97.2 | 0.000 | 6.00 (1.17, 30.85) | 0.032 |
| Prospective | 1 | - | - | 3.29 (1.41, 7.68) | 0.006 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| ADA | 1 | - | - | 2.21 (1.34, 3.65) | 0.002 |
| IADPSG | 1 | - | - | 3.29 (1.41, 7.68) | 0.006 |
| Others | 1 | - | - | 5.00 (1.60, 15.61) | 0.006 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| WHO | 3 | 0 | 0.378 | 2.68 (1.79, 4.01) | <0.001 |
| OGTT 1-h | 4 | 99.5 | 0.000 | 1.38 (1.02, 1.87) | 0.037 |
| Location | |||||
| Asia | 2 | 75.2 | 0.045 | 1.12 (0.87, 1.44) | 0.38 |
| Oceania | 2 | 41.3 | 0.192 | 1.53 (1.48, 1.58) | <0.001 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 2 | 65.9 | 0.087 | 1.57 (1.06, 2.33) | 0.024 |
| >500 | 2 | 99.8 | 0.000 | 1.24 (0.83, 1.86) | 0.289 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 2 | 99.8 | 0.000 | 1.24 (0.83, 1.86) | 0.289 |
| Prospective | 2 | 65.9 | 0.087 | 1.57 (1.06, 2.33) | 0.024 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| IADPSG | 1 | - | - | 1.98 (1.35, 2.91) | 0.001 |
| Others | 1 | - | - | 1.53 (1.48, 1.58) | <0.001 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| WHO | 3 | 32.7 | 0.227 | 1.53 (1.48, 1.58) | <0.001 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 1.01 (1.01, 1.02) | <0.001 |
| Waist circumference | 4 | 86.8 | 0.000 | 1.12 (0.98, 1.29) | 0.094 |
| Location | |||||
| Asia | 2 | 91.5 | 0.001 | 1.88 (0.51, 6.88) | 0.343 |
| Oceania | 1 | - | - | 3.97 (1.34, 11.80) | 0.013 |
| Africa | 1 | - | - | 1.10 (1.05, 1.15) | <0.001 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 3 | 82.5 | 0.003 | 1.07 (0.97, 1.18) | 0.181 |
| >500 | 1 | - | - | 3.86 (1.81, 8.24) | <0.001 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 2 | 82.6 | 0.017 | 1.06 (0.98, 1.14) | 0.136 |
| Prospective | 2 | 0 | 0.967 | 3.90 (2.09, 7.26) | <0.001 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| IADPSG | 1 | - | - | 3.97 (1.34, 11.80) | 0.013 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 3.86 (1.81, 8.24) | <0.001 |
| Others | 1 | - | - | 1.10 (1.05, 1.15) | <0.001 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| WHO | 2 | 81.2 | 0.021 | 1.85 (0.54, 6.38) | 0.328 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 3.86 (1.81, 8.24) | <0.001 |
| Early diagnosis GDM | 5 | 46.1 | 0.115 | 0.96 (0.93, 0.99) | 0.26 |
| Location | |||||
| Asia | 3 | 72.8 | 0.025 | 1.50 (0.76, 2.94) | 0.241 |
| Oceania | 1 | - | - | 1.05 (0.40, 2.76) | 0.921 |
| Europe | 1 | - | - | 1.05 (0.32, 3.45) | 0.936 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 4 | 0 | 0.508 | 1.65 (1.03, 2.63) | 0.037 |
| >500 | 1 | - | - | 0.96 (0.93, 0.99) | 0.01 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 2 | 76.2 | 0.04 | 1.29 (0.61, 2.73) | 0.498 |
| Prospective | 3 | 0 | 0.436 | 1.41 (0.77, 2.57) | 0.264 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| IADPSG | 1 | - | - | 1.05 (0.40, 2.76) | 0.921 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 2.40 (0.88, 6.58) | 0.089 |
| Others | 2 | 0 | 0.333 | 1.73 (0.92, 3.25) | 0.091 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| WHO | 4 | 0 | 0,508 | 1.65 (1.03, 2.63) | 0.037 |
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 0.96 (0.93, 0.99) | 0.01 |
| Progestin-only contraceptive | 3 | 61 | 0.077 | 2.12 (1.00, 4.45) | 0.049 |
| Location | |||||
| North America | 2 | 75.6 | 0.043 | 1.84 (0.77, 4.40) | 0.169 |
| Europe | 1 | - | - | 4.28 (0.90, 20.38) | 0.068 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 1 | - | - | 4.28 (0.90, 20.38) | 0.068 |
| >500 | 2 | 75.6 | 0.043 | 1.84 (0.77, 4.40) | 0.169 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 1 | - | - | 2.87 (1.57, 5.26) | 0.001 |
| Prospective | 2 | 55.9 | 0.132 | 1.83 (0.55, 6.03) | 0.324 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 2.87 (1.57, 5.26) | 0.001 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| NDDG | 1 | - | - | 2.87 (1.57, 5.26) | 0.001 |
| ADA | 2 | 55.9 | 0.132 | 1.83 (0.55, 6.03) | 0.324 |
| Greater education | 4 | 62.7 | 0.045 | 0.53 (0.20, 1.37) | 0.188 |
| Location | |||||
| North America | 1 | - | - | 0.46 (0.24, 0.88) | 0.019 |
| Asia | 1 | - | - | 0.10 (0.02, 0.55) | 0.008 |
| Oceania | 1 | - | - | 0.60 (0.24, 1.51) | 0.278 |
| Africa | 1 | - | - | 4.60 (0.58, 36.61) | 0.149 |
| Sample | |||||
| <500 | 3 | 74.8 | 0.019 | 0.60 (0.10, 3.47) | 0.566 |
| >500 | 1 | - | - | 0.46 (0.24, 0.88) | 0.019 |
| Study design | |||||
| Retrospective | 1 | - | - | 4.60 (0.58, 36.61) | 0.149 |
| Prospective | 3 | 40.6 | 0.186 | 0.44 (0.26, 0.72) | 0.015 |
| Diagnostic criteria of GDM | |||||
| IADPSG | 1 | - | - | 0.60 (0.24, 1.51) | 0.278 |
| Others | 1 | - | - | 4.60 (0.58, 36.61) | 0.149 |
| Diagnostic criteria of T2DM | |||||
| WHO | 3 | 74.8 | 0.019 | 0.60 (0.10, 3.47) | 0.566 |