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. 2025 Jan 6;15:983. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-83211-y

Table 3.

Overview of a variety of nano additives and their influence on characteristics of engine41–47

Researcher Nano additive and surfactant concentration Base fuel and surfactant Engine specification Significance
Sivakumar et al.41

Al2O3 (50–100 ppm), Cetyltrimethyl ammonium

bromide

 Palm oil methyl ester Single cylinder, 4 S, Kirloskar AV1, 210 bar IP and 23degbTDC IT, 16.5:1 CR, 1500 rpm 7% high BTE, lowered BSFC, HC, CO, higher NOx emissions
Ranjan et al.42 MgO (30 ppm), 4-chlorobenzoyl chloride Waste cooking oil biodiesel Single cylinder, Kirloskar TV1, vertical, 1500 rpm, 17:1 CR, load (4.7–18.11 kg) Higher BP, BSFC and BTE, CO2, lowered HC, CO and NOx, improved combustion
Mehreganet al.43 Manganese oxide and cobalt oxide (25 ppm and 50 ppm), no surfactant B20 Waste frying oil 4 cylinder, 4 stroke urea-SCR direct injection, CR 17.9: 1, IP210 bar, IT 23 deg bTDC Lowered SFC at part and full load, higher thermal η, drastic reduction of NOx and CO.
El-Seesy et al.44 Al2O3 (50–100 ppm), 20 mg per litre, no surfactant Jojoba oil methyl ester Deutz F1l511, 1 cyl, 4 S, DI,1500 rpm, IP175 bar, IT 24 deg bTDC NOx 70%↓, CO 80%↓, HC 60%↓, and Smoke 35%↓, 12% drop in BSFC
Hoseini et al.45 Graphene oxide (30, 60 and 90 ppm), no surfactant Ailanthus altissima biodiesel Lombardini Diesel 3LD510, 1800 rpm, 17.9:1 CR, 1 cyl, non-turbocharged, 32.8 Nm torque ↓HC, ↓CO, ↓BSFC, ↑NOx and ↑CO
Kumar et al.46 Ferrous oxide and ferrofluid (0.5%, 1% and 1.5%), Surfactant: 2 mol of NaOH B20 palm oil methyl ester Single cylinder, 4 S, Kirloskar TV1, 210 bar IP and 23degbTDC IT, 16.5:1 CR, 1500 rpm ↑ BTE (by 16.6%), ↓BSFC (by 11.1%), other emissions reduced simultaneously
Ashok et al.47 Zinc oxide (50 and 100 ppm), Ethanox (200 and 500 ppm) Surfactant: Alcohol CalophyllumInophyllum methyl ester Simpson S217, Two cyl 4 S, DI, vertical, IT 23 deg bTDC, IP 200 bar 18.5:1 CR High BTE for ZnO (29.5%) than Ethanox (26.8%), lowest BSFC for ZnO 50 ppm, 18.4% and 13% less CO and HC for ZnO 50 ppm, 17.8% less NOx for Ethanox (500 ppm), 12.6% less NOx for ZnO100ppm.