Table 1.
Articles and their characteristics included in the scoping review
| First author – year of publication | Article title | Country | Region | Study design | Population description | # of participants | % Female | Mean age (years) | Race/ethnicity of participants | Type of trauma(s) assessed | How traumas were assessed | % of participants with SMHC who experienced traumatic event | Mental health diagnosis | How mental health diagnosis was assessed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afe 2016 (Afe et al., 2016) | Intimate partner violence, psychopathology and the women with schizophrenia in an outpatient clinic South–South, Nigeria | Nigeria | Cross River State, South–South | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Female outpatients with SCZ | 77 | 100% | 38.3 | Efik/Ibibio (49.0%), Ibos (34.0%), Yoruba (16.0%) and Hausas (1.0%) | IPV | WHO Violence Against Women Instrument | 75% | SCZ | SCID |
| Aluh 2022 (Aluh et al., 2022) | Experiences and perceptions of coercive practices in mental health care among service users in Nigeria: a qualitative study | Nigeria | Not reported | Qualitative | Mental health service users at two major psychiatric hospitals | 30 | 36.7% | 34.67 | Not reported | Coercive practices in hospitals, for example, use of ropes, chains and handcuffs for mechanical restraint, being whipped | Focus group discussions | 40% chaining and 16.6% whipping | SCZ, SZA, BD, depression and other mental and behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance | Not reported |
| Ametaj 2021 (Ametaj et al., 2021) | Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Individuals with Severe Mental Illness in a Non-Western Setting: Data from Rural Ethiopia | Ethiopia | Sodo District, Gurage Zone | Qualitative | Patients with SMI, their caregivers, healthcare providers, and community and religious leaders in a rural community | 48 in full sample; 13 with SMI | 46.15% of people with SMI | 35.15 years for people with SMI | Gurage (100%) | Multiple, including chaining, animal attacks, rape and physical assault | Semi-structured interview | N/A | SMI: SCZ, BD and depression with psychotic features | OPCRIT conducted by psychiatric nurses |
| An 2016 (An et al., 2016) | Physical restraint for psychiatric patients and its associations with clinical characteristics and the National Mental Health Law in China | China | Beijing | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Patients with psychiatric conditions | 1,364 | 63.9% | 36.2 | Not reported | Physical restraint, for example, use of belts to fix a patient to a bed | Chart review and confirmed during interviews | 35.2% of people with SCZ and 42.1% with mood disorders | SCZ, mood disorders and other | Confirmed in a clinical interview |
| Asher 2017 (Asher et al., 2017) | “I cry every day and night, I have my son tied in chains”: physical restraint of people with schizophrenia in community settings in Ethiopia | Ethiopia | Sodo and Butajira districts, Gurage Zone | Qualitative | People with SCZ, their caregivers, community leaders, and primary and community health workers in rural community | 50 in full sample; 4 with SCZ | 52.0% of full sample; 25% of people with SCZ | Not reported | N/A | Physical violence and restraint in community settings, for example, beating, use of handcuffs, chains and iron bars | Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews | N/A | SCZ | OPCRIT conducted by a psychiatric nurse |
| Bagewadi 2016 (Bagewadi et al., 2016) | Standardized Mortality Ratio in Patients with schizophrenia – Findings from Thirthahalli: A Rural South Indian Community | India | Thirthahalli, Karnataka | Quantitative: cohort | Patients with SCZ who live in a community setting who are alive and those who died | 943 in full sample;12 deceased | 33.3% of the deceased patients | 45.1 for the deceased patients | Not reported | Accidents leading to death | Chart review and/or verbal report from family members | 0.11% of the full cohort; 8.3% of the deceased patients | SCZ | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist, followed by the MINI |
| Belete 2017 (Belete, 2017a) | Leveling and abuse among patients with bipolar disorder at psychiatric outpatient departments in Ethiopia | Ethiopia | Addis Ababa | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Outpatients with BD | 411 | 57.4% | 34.35 | Amhara (34.55%), Oromo (32.85%), Gurage (20%), Tigray (5.8%) and others (6.8%) | Verbal or physical abuse | Chart review and by asking the patients and/or from family members | 37.7% | BD | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist or mental health professional specialist |
| Belete 2017 (Belete, 2017b) | Use of physical restraints among patients with bipolar disorder in Ethiopian Mental Specialized Hospital, outpatient department: cross-sectional study | Ethiopia | Addis Ababa | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Outpatients with BD | 400 | 57.2% | 32 | Amhara (34.7%), Oromo (33.0%), Gurage (19.7%), Tigray (5.8%) and others (6.8%) | Physical restraint | Chart review and/or verbal report from family members | 65% | BD | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist or mental health professional specialist |
| Bhattacharya 2022 (Bhattacharya, 2022) | “The Day I Die Is the Day I Will Find My Peace”: Narratives of Family, Marriage, and Violence Among Women Living with Serious Mental Illness in India | India | Not reported | Qualitative | Current or former female inpatients with SMI living in an urban setting | 11 | 100% | Mid‑30s to early 60s, no mean age provided | Not reported | Domestic and sexual violence | In-depth interviews | N/A | SMI: SCZ, SZA or BD | Not reported |
| Chandra 2003 (Chandra et al., 2003) | A Cry from the Darkness: Women with Severe Mental Illness in India Reveal Their Experiences with Sexual Coercion | India | Bangalore | Mixed-methods (qualitative and structured interviews) | Female inpatients with SMI | 50 | 100% | 30 | Not reported | Sexual coercion, that is, forced sexual intercourse, unwanted sexual play and sexual experiences involving threats or use of physical force | Sexual Experiences Survey (SES) and semi-structured interview | 34% coercive experiences after onset on mental illness | SMI: recurrent depressive disorder, SCZ spectrum disorder, BD and other disorders | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist |
| Chandra 2003 (Chandra et al., 2003) | Sexual coercion and abuse among women with a severe mental illness in India: An exploratory investigation | India | Bangalore | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Female inpatients with SMI | 146 | 100% | 31.6 | Not reported | Sexual coercion, that is, forced sexual intercourse, unwanted sexual play, and sexual experiences involving threats or use of physical force | Sexual Experiences Survey (SES) | 16% of adult sexual coercion and 7% of both adult sexual coercion and child sexual abuse | SCZ-spectrum disorders, BD and depression | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist |
| de Oliveira 2013 (de Oliveira et al., 2013) | Physical violence against patients with mental disorders in Brazil: sex differences in a cross-sectional study | Brazil | National | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Patients with SMI using public mental health services | 2,475 | 51.6% | 44.9 women and 51.9 men | Not reported | Physical violence | Semi-structured interview | 12.0% of women and 16.0% of men experienced physical violence within health institutions by other patients, employees or health professionals. (Other physical violence reported could not be split out from lifetime exposure.) | SCZ and other psychosis, BD, depressive disorder and others | Chart review |
| El Missiry 2019 (El Missiry et al., 2019) | Rates and profile of victimization in a sample of Egyptian patients with major mental illness | Egypt | Cairo | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Inpatients and outpatients with major mental illness | 300 | 52.0% of full sample | 34.3 for victimized sample | Not reported | Covert/relational victimization or physical victimization, that is, threatened or subjected to corporeal damage | Victimization Questionnaire (VQ) | 43.3% | Major mental illness: SCZ, BD and major depression | SCID |
| Fekadu 2015 (Fekadu et al., 2015) | Excess mortality in severe mental illness: 10-year population-based cohort study in rural Ethiopia | Ethiopia | Butajira District, Gurage Zone | Quantitative: cohort | People with SMI and those without in a rural community | 919 in full cohort; 121 patients who died | 37.8% | 15–49 at baseline, no mean age provided | Not reported | Accidents leading to death and homicides | Verbal autopsy | 9.10% | SMI: SCZ, BD and severe depression | SCAN conducted by a psychiatrist or mental health professional |
| Fekry 2012 (Fekry, 2011) | Clinical and sociodemographic profile of victimized versus nonvictimized Egyptian patients with bipolar mood disorder | Egypt | Cairo | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Inpatients and outpatients with BD | 100 | 36.0% of full sample; 41.7% of victimized group | 31 | Not reported | Covert/relational victimization or physical victimization, that is, threatened or subjected to corporeal damage | Victimization Questionnaire (VQ) | 48% | BD | SCID |
| Gilmoor 2020 (Gilmoor et al., 2020) | “If somebody could just understand what I am going through, it would make all the difference”: Conceptualizations of trauma in homeless populations experiencing severe mental illness | India | Kanchipuram and Chennai | Qualitative | People with SMI who were previously homeless or at risk of homelessness | 26 | 76.9% | 47 | Not reported | Multiple, including abuse, man-made accidents, natural disasters, violence, illness and death | In-depth interviews and questions based on previous culturally relevant free listing exercise | N/A | SMI: SCZ, BD, psychosis NOS, substance induced delirium and major depressive disorder | Self-report |
| Gowda 2018 (Gowda et al., 2018) | Restraint prevalence and perceived coercion among psychiatric inpatients from South India: A prospective study | India | Bangalore | Quantitative: cohort | Inpatients with SCZ or mood disorders | 200 | 45% | 33.5 | Not reported | Restraint measures: physical restraints, chemical restraints, seclusion/isolation and involuntary medication | Interviews with participants and health records | 66.5% experienced 1+ restraint measures; 20% physical restraint, 58% chemical restraint, 18% seclusion and 32% involuntary medication | SCZ or other psychotic disorders and mood disorders | MINI |
| Hu 2022 (Hu et al., 2022) | A Retrospective Analysis of Death Among Chinese Han Patients with schizophrenia from Shandong | China | Shandong | Quantitative: cohort | Patients with SCZ who are alive and those who died | 72,102 in full sample; 11,766 deceased | 48.21% | 47.21 | Han (100%) | Accidents leading to death and homicides | Death certificates or forensic specialist | 6.97% | SCZ | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist |
| Jakhar 2015 (Jakhar et al., 2015) | A cross sectional study of prevalence and correlates of current and past risks in schizophrenia | India | New Delhi | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Patients with SCZ from the psychiatric ward of large mental hospitals | 270 | 35.2% | 34.0 | Not reported | “Risk from others” | Ram Manohar Lohia Risk Assessment Interview | 11% | SCZ | Referral by treating a clinician followed by Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies – Hindi version (DIGS) |
| Lundberg 2012 (Lundberg et al., 2012b) | Sexual Risk Behaviors and Sexual Abuse in Persons with Severe Mental Illness in Uganda: A Qualitative Study | Uganda | Kampala | Qualitative | Inpatients cleared for discharge and outpatients | 20 | 65% | 18–49, no mean age provided | Not reported | Sexual abuse | Semi-structured interview | N/A | SMI: SCZ, BD or depression | Chart review |
| Lundberg 2015 (Lundberg et al., 2015) | Sexual Risk Behavior, Sexual Violence, and HIV in Persons with Severe Mental Illness in Uganda: Hospital-Based Cross-Sectional Study and National Comparison Data | Uganda | Kampala | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Former inpatients with SMI | 602 | 57.0% (note: only women assessed for sexual violence) | 18–49, no mean age provided | Not reported | Sexual violence | WHO Violence Against Women Instrument | 24.2% of women experienced sexual violence by a partner; 10.5% of women experienced sexual violence by a non-partner | SMI: BD, nonaffective psychosis and major depression | Chart review |
| Manjunatha 2019 (Manjunatha et al., 2019) | Mortality in schizophrenia: A study of verbal autopsy from cohorts of two rural communities of South India | India | Thirthahalli and Turuvekere, Karnataka | Quantitative: cohort | People with SCZ from rural communities who died | 53 | 47.1% | 50.5 | Not reported | Death due to road traffic accidents | Verbal autopsy | 5.6% | SCZ | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist, followed by the MINI |
| Melo 2022 (Melo et al., 2022) | All-cause and cause-specific mortality among people with severe mental illness in Brazil’s public health system, 2000–2015: a retrospective study | Brazil | National | Quantitative: cohort | Inpatients with SMI and those without in the public health system | 72,021,918 in full sample; 749,720 with SMI | 56.9% of the full sample and 50.5% of the people with SMI | 41.1 for full sample | Not reported | Injuries including interpersonal violence and unintentional causes such as fires, drowning, foreign body, road injuries and falls | Chart review | 19.9% of deaths in the population with SMI | SMI: SCZ, SZA, BD or depressive disorder | Chart review |
| Minas 2008 (Minas and Diatri, 2008) | Pasung: Physical restraint and confinement of the mentally ill in the community | Indonesia | Samosir | Quantitative: cross-sectional | People with SMI in the community | 15 | 46.7% | 25–56 years, no mean age provided | Not reported | Physical restraint and confinement, that is, by wooden stocks, confined in a small room or hut, tied with rope or chained | Physical identification (case finding) | 100% | SCZ and other | Self-report and reports by family or community members |
| Mojtabai 2001 (Mojtabai et al., 2001) | Mortality and long-term course in schizophrenia with a poor 2-year course: A study in a developing country | India | Urban and rural Chandigarh | Quantitative: cohort | Patients with SCZ in an urban and a rural setting | 171; 24 participants who died | 47% of full sample | 26.7 at baseline | Not reported | Death due to traffic accidents | Verbal autopsy and/or medical records | 0.58% of full sample; 4.2% of the deceased group | SCZ | Present State Examination (PSE) |
| Moodley 2023 (Moodley et al., 2023) | The missed pandemic: Intimate partner violence in female mental-health-care-users during the COVID‑19 pandemic | South Africa | KwaZulu-Natal | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Female outpatients with SMI | 154 | 100% | 42.7 | Black (50.3%), White (17.2%), Indian (21.2%) and colored (11.3%) | Interpersonal violence | Women Abuse Screening Tool (WAST) | 46.6% | SMI: SCZ spectrum disorder, BD, major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders and personality disorders | Diagnoses were confirmed clinically using DSM‑5 criteria by the researcher and chart reviews provided by the treating doctor |
| Mpango 2023 (Mpango et al., 2023) | Physical and sexual victimization of persons with severe mental illness seeking care in central and southwestern Uganda | Uganda | Kampala and Masaka | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Outpatients with SMI | 1,201 | 54.5% | 36 | Not reported | Physical and sexual victimization | Adverse life events module of the European Para-suicide Interview Schedule (EPSIS I) | 13.6% physical victimization and 8.6% sexual victimization in the last 12 months | SMI: SCZ, BD and recurrent major depressive disorder | Chart review followed by the MINI |
| Nair 2020 (Nair et al., 2020) | Prevalence and clinical correlates of intimate partner violence (IPV) in women with severe mental illness (SMI) | India | “Southern part of India” | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Female inpatients with SMI who cohabitate with a partner | 100 | 100% | 34.2 | Not reported | IPV | Indian Family Violence and Control Scale (IFVCS) | 20% in the last 12 months | Psychosis and BD | Chart review |
| Ng 2019 (Ng et al., 2019) | Trauma exposure, depression, suicidal ideation, and alcohol use in people with severe mental disorder in Ethiopia | Ethiopia | Sodo District, Gurage zone | Quantitative: cross-sectional | People with severe mental disorders in a rural community | 300 | 43% | 36 | Not reported | Physical restraint, assault, being beaten, rape, and more | List of Threatening Experiences scale (LTE); 2 questions on restraint; 13 questions on locally established traumatic events, for example, rape, beaten and hit by car | 26.76% serious illness/injury-self; 46.33% restrained; 35.67% locally relevant traumatic events | Primary psychosis, BD and depression with psychotic features | OPCRIT conducted by psychiatric nurses |
| Opekitan 2017 (Opekitan et al., 2017) | Socio-Demographic Characteristics, Partner Characteristics, Socioeconomic Variables, and Intimate Partner Violence in Women with schizophrenia in South–South Nigeria | Nigeria | South–South | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Female outpatients with SCZ | 79 | 100% | 38.3 | Efik/Ibibio (51.0%), Ibos (33.0%), Yorubas (15.0%) and Hausas (1.0%) | IPV | WHO Violence Against Women Instrument | 73.0% | SCZ | SCID |
| Paul 2018 (Paul, 2018) | Are we doing enough? Stigma, discrimination and human rights violations of people living with schizophrenia in India: Implications for social work practice | India | Mumbai | Qualitative | People with SCZ or SCZ-related disorders, family members and mental health professionals | 40 in full sample; 20 with SCZ-related disorder | 50% of people with SCZ | 40.85 for people with SCZ | Not reported | Stigma, discrimination and human rights violations, including physical and emotional violence | In-depth interviews and focus group discussions | N/A | SCZ and/or a SCZ-related disorder | Not reported |
| Ponnudurai 2006 (Ponnudurai et al., 2006) | Assessment of mortality and marital status of schizophrenic patients over a period of 13 years | India | Tamil Nadu | Quantitative: cohort | Outpatients with SCZ who died | 60 | 11.67% | 27 for men and 26.7 for women at baseline | Not reported | Death due to accidents | Case notes at the hospital and verbal autopsies confirmed by police reports | 1.67% | SCZ | Independently confirmed by two psychiatrists |
| Ran 2007 (Ran et al., 2007) | Mortality in people with schizophrenia in rural China: 10-year cohort study | China | Xinjin County, Chengdu | Quantitative: cohort | Patients with SCZ in a rural community who are alive and those who died | 500; 98 participants who died | 53.4% of full sample | 44.7 | Not reported | Death due to accidents | Death certificates and verbal autopsies | 2.6% of full sample; 13.3% of the deceased group | SCZ | Present State Examination (PSE) |
| Rani 2023 (Rani et al., 2023) | A Qualitative Study to Understand the Nature of Abuse Experienced by Persons with Severe Mental Illness | India | Bengaluru | Qualitative | Outpatients with SMIs, their caregivers and experts from the community | 51 in full sample; 14 with SMI | 50% of people with SMI | 18–60+, no mean age provided | Not reported | Physical abuse, psychological abuse, sexual abuse, social abuse and trauma in formal care | Key informant interviews and focus group discussions | N/A | SMI: BD, SCZ, SZA and recurrent depressive disorder | Not reported |
| Rani 2023 (Rani et al., 2023) | Profiles of Victimized Outpatients with Severe Mental Illness in India | India | Not reported | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Outpatients with SMI | 150 | 56% | 36.16 | Not reported | Emotional abuse, severe combined abuse, physical abuse and harassment | Composite Abuse Scale (CAS) | 100% experienced emotional abuse, 94% severe combined abuse, 92.7% physical abuse and 54% harassment in the past 12 months | SMI: BD, SCZ, SZA and recurrent depressive disorder | Chart review |
| Read 2009 (Read et al., 2009) | Local suffering and the global discourse of mental health and human rights: An ethnographic study of responses to mental illness in rural Ghana | Ghana | Kintampo | Qualitative and ethnographic methods | People with SMI, their families, healing practitioners and religious leaders within rural communities | 67 in full sample; 25 with SMI | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Chaining, beating and withholding of food | Observation, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions | N/A | SMI | Not reported |
| Reddy 2020 (Reddy et al., 2020) | Childhood abuse and intimate partner violence among women with mood disorders | India | Bangalore | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Women with SMI vs. healthy women with intimate partners | 251 with SMI and 72 healthy women | 100% | 35.35 for people with SMI | Not reported | Childhood abuse and IPV | Composite Abuse Scale to assess the adulthood IPV | 29.1% severe combined abuse; 37.5% emotional abuse; 47.8% physical abuse; 25.9% harassment in the population with SMI | SMI: unipolar depression and BD | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist, followed by the MINI |
| Sadath 2014 (Sadath et al., 2014) | Human rights violation in mental health: A case report from India | India | “South India” | Case report | Man with SCZ | 1 | 0% | 41 | Not reported | Solitary confinement in a single room/terrace with no ventilation, sanitary facilities, fed through window and personal care not given for >15 years | Physical identification (case finding) | 100% | Paranoid SCZ | Not reported |
| Sam 2019 (Sam et al., 2019) | Stressful Life Events and Relapse in Bipolar Affective Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study from a Tertiary Care Center of Southern India | India | Kolenchery, Kerala | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Inpatients with BD | 128 | 43.0% | 40.19 | Not reported | Major personal illness or injury | Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale (PSLES) | 3.4% | BD: mania and depression | Not reported, beyond stating “ICD‑10 criteria” |
| Subramanian 2017 (Subramanian et al., 2017) | Role of stressful life events and kindling in bipolar disorder: Converging evidence from a mania-predominant illness course | India | “Southern India” | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Inpatients and outpatients with BD | 149 | 52.3% | 37.7 | Not reported | Major personal illness or injury | Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale (PSLES) | 0.8% | BD | SCID |
| Suryani 2011 (Suryani et al., 2011) | Treating the untreated: Applying a community-based, culturally sensitive psychiatric intervention to confined and physically restrained mentally ill individuals in Bali, Indonesia | Indonesia | Karangasem regency, Bali | Quantitative: cross-sectional | People with SCZ-spectrum disorders in the community | 23 | 13% | 45.1 | Not reported | Restraint with iron shackles, ropes, wooden stocks or wooden cages | Physical identification (case finding) | 91.3% restraint with iron shackles, ropes and wooden stocks; 8.7% confined to wooden cages | SCZ-spectrum disorder | Clinical diagnosis by a psychiatrist |
| Teferra 2011 (Teferra et al., 2011) | Five-year mortality in a cohort of people with schizophrenia in Ethiopia | Ethiopia | Butajira District, Gurage zone | Quantitative: cohort | Patients with SCZ in a rural community who are alive and those who died | 307; 38 participants who died | 17.9% of the full sample; 10.5% of the deceased group | 35 for the deceased group | Not reported | Death due to traffic accidents | Verbal autopsy | 0.7% of full sample; 5.3% of the deceased group | SCZ | SCAN conducted by a psychiatrist or mental health professional |
| Tsigebrhan 2014 (Tsigebrhan et al., 2014) | Violence and violent victimization in people with severe mental illness in a rural low-income country setting: A comparative cross-sectional community study | Ethiopia | Butajira District, Gurage Zone | Quantitative: cross-sectional | People with SMI and those without in a rural community | 401 in full sample; 201 with SMI and 200 without | 38.8% in the full sample | 40 for the full sample; 40.3 for people with SMI | Not reported | Violent victimization, for example, being kicked, dragged, chained or beaten; threatened or attacked with a weapon; forced to have sexual intercourse | Adapted version of the McArthur Violence Interview | 17.4% in the past 12 months | SMI: SCZ, SZA and BD | SCAN conducted by a psychiatrist or mental health professional |
| Vijayalakshmi 2012 (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2012) | Gender-Related Differences in the Human Rights Needs of Patients with Mental Illness | India | Not reported | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Asymptomatic outpatients with SCZ or mood disorders | 100 | 47.0% | 34.68 | Not reported | Torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; not allowed to leave home; sexual advances by family members | Needs assessment questionnaire based on Universal Declaration of Human Rights | 61.0% sexual advances by family members and 35.0% not allowed to leave their home | Mood disorders or SCZ disorders | Not reported |
| Wang 2020 (Wang et al., 2020) | Frequency and correlates of violence against patients with schizophrenia living in rural China | China | Luoding County, Guangdong | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Outpatients with SCZ in a rural community | 487 | 35.9% | 42.36 | Not reported | Violent victimization in the past 6 months, for example, sexual assault with violence, sexual harassment with physical contacts, verbal harassment with sexual content, nonsexual physical violence and verbal threat and abuse by family members or others | Asked participants | 18.9% experienced 1+ event in the past 6 months | SCZ | Chart reviewed followed by a clinical interview |
| Windarwati 2021 (Windarwati et al., 2021) | A Journey of Hidden Outburst of Anger Shackling a Person with schizophrenia: The Indonesian Context | Indonesia | East Java | Qualitative | People with SCZ, family members, volunteers, prominent figures and nurses | 23 in full sample; 5 with SCZ | 0% of people with SCZ | > 40, no mean age provided | Not reported | Shackling by ankles | Records from regional health office and grounded-theory approach | 100% | SCZ | Not reported |
| Yosep 2021 (Yosep et al., 2021) | How patients with schizophrenia “as a Victim” cope with violence in Indonesia: a qualitative study | Indonesia | West Java | Qualitative | Patients with SCZ from the psychiatric ward of large mental hospitals | 40 | 35.0% | 35.8 | Not reported | Pushing, punching, kicking and restraining | Semi-structured interview | 100% | SCZ | Confirmed diagnosis by a physician |
| Yosep 2021 (Yosep et al., 2021) | Experiences of Violence Among Individuals With schizophrenia in Indonesia a Phenomenological Study | Indonesia | West Java | Qualitative | Patients with SCZ recruited from referral hospitals | 40 | 37.5% | 35.6 | Not reported | Victimization by nurses and family members, including physical and verbal violence | Focus group discussions | N/A | SCZ | Not reported |
| Zerihun 2021 (Zerihun et al., 2021) | Intimate partner violence among reproductive-age women with chronic mental illness attending a psychiatry outpatient department: cross-sectional facility-based study, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia | Ethiopia | Addis Ababa | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Female outpatients of reproductive age | 422 | 100% | 32.1 | Not reported | IPV | WHO Violence Against Women Instrument | 44.1% in the past 12 months | SCZ, BD, and severe major depression | Participants recruited from outpatient departments, but diagnosis process not stated |
| Zhang 2018 (Zhang et al., 2018) | Long-Term Outcomes of Unlocking Chinese Patients with Severe Mental Illness | China | Hebei | Quantitative: cohort | Patients with SMI | 107 | 16.82% at baseline | 35.9 at baseline | Not reported | Physical restraint, for example, use of iron chains, iron cage, rope or a separate room or shed | Not reported | 100% at baseline; 19.6% at Time 2 (year 2012); 17.8% at Time 3 (year 2016) | SMI: SCZ, paranoid psychosis and BD | Not reported, beyond stating “ICD‑10 criteria” |
| Zhu 2014 (Zhu et al., 2014) | Frequency of Physical Restraint and Its Associations with Demographic and Clinical Characteristics in a Chinese Psychiatric Institution | China | Hunan | Quantitative: cross-sectional | Inpatients with psychiatric conditions | 160; 85 with SCZ and BP | 50.6% of full sample | 30.0 | Not reported | Physical restraint | Medical records and confirmed by interview | 51.3% | Of the full sample: SCZ, mood disorders and others | Chart review and confirmed by clinical interview |
Acronyms: BP = bipolar disorder; DSM = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; ICD = International Classification of Diseases; IPV = intimate partner violence; MINI = Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview; N/A = not applicable; OPCRIT = Operational Criteria Checklist for Psychotic Illness; PSE = Present State Examination; SCID = Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SCZ = schizophrenia; SMI = severe mental illness or serious mental illness; SZA = schizoaffective disorder; WHO = World Health Organization.
Note: the terminology in the table reflects the language the researchers used in their articles, such as SMI.