Table 1. IUCN governance categories.

Broad and specific IUCN governance categories and the number of MPAs used in this study. No data were available for the Private Governance and Governance by Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities categories [36].

Broad Category	Description	Specific Category	Description	Number of MPAs in this study	Example
Governance by Government (State Governance)	Government body holds the authority over the governance of the MPA, determines its conservation objectives, and develops and enforces the management plan. There may not be a legal obligation to consult stakeholders.	National	Federal government, ministry or agency holds the authority over the governance of the MPA.	84	South Water Caye Marine Reserve (Belize)–governed by the Belize federal fisheries department [37].
		Sub-national	Local-level government, ministry or agency holds authority over the governance of the MPA.	71	Shoalwater Islands Marine Reserve–governed by the Government of Western Australia Department of Biodiversity, Conservation, and Attractions [38].
Shared Governance	Multiple rightsholders and stakeholders hold authority over the governance of the MPA and can influence decision-making.	Collaborative	Management authority shared among multiple government and non-government actors, with decision-making authority resting with one agency (can be government or non-government).	52	Fowl Cays National Park (Abaco, Bahamas)–governed by the Bahamas National Trust with a core inter-agency management team which requires public participation and stakeholder engagement. The Bahamas National Trust holds decision-making authority [39].
		Joint	Pluralist board or other multi-party governing body holds authority over the governance of the MPA.	10	Leone Pala Seasonal Management Area (American Samoa)–primarily governed by the American Samoa Coastal Management program within the Department of Commerce but other agencies contribute to governance (for example the Department of Marine and Wildlife Resources and the American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency). All new projects must include a public hearing to obtain stakeholder input [40].
Private Governance	Protected areas under individual, cooperative, NGO or corporate control and/or ownership.	N/A		0	Misool Marine Reserve (Indonesia)–privately funded marine reserve. Area is leased from the local community by the Misool Resort and Misool Foundation [41].
Governance by Indigenous peoples and local communities	Protected areas where the management authority and responsibility rest with Indigenous peoples and/or local communities through various forms of customary or legal, formal or informal, institutions and rules.	Indigenous peoples’ areas	Indigenous peoples’ areas and territories established and run by Indigenous Peoples	0	Gitdisdzu Lugyeks Marine Protected Area (Canada)–formally designated, implemented and governed by the Kitasoo/Xai’xais First Nation [42]
		Community conserved areas	Areas established and run by local communities	0	Villagers of Sawaieke District on Gau Island have established and govern a permanent community marine protected area [43]