Nutritional, Nutraceutical, and Medicinal Potential of Cantharellus cibarius Fr.: A Comprehensive Review

ABSTRACT

Mushrooms are considered as nutraceutical foods that can effectively prevent diseases such as cancer and other serious life‐threatening conditions include neurodegeneration, hypertension, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia. The Cantharellus cibarius, also known as the “Golden chanterelle” or “Golden girolle,” is a significant wild edible ectomycorrhizal mushroom. It is renowned for its delicious, apricot‐like aroma and is highly valued in various culinary traditions worldwide. It is well known for its nutritional, nutraceutical, and therapeutic properties. The high nutritional value of C. cibarius is attributed to its abundant carbohydrates, proteins, β‐glucans, dietary fiber, and low‐fat content. It also contains medicinal polysaccharides (β‐glucans), proteins (lectins and selenoproteins), important fatty acids (linoleic and omega‐6), vitamins, and minerals (N, P, K, Ca, Zn, Ag, Se, etc.). The sporocarp of C. cibarius contains a diverse array of bioactive metabolites, including flavonoids, phenolics, sterols, fatty acids, organic acids, indole groups, carbohydrates, vitamins (tocopherols), amino acids, enzymes, bioelements, carotenoids, and 5ˊ‐nucleotides. C. cibarius has a wide array of biological properties, such as antioxidant, anticancer, anti‐inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial, anthelmintic, insecticidal, antihypoxia, antihyperglycemic, wound‐healing, cytotoxic, and iron‐chelating activity. Thus, the present review gives an overview of C. cibarius, covering its chemical composition, ecological significance, postharvest preservation strategies, and potential applications in dietary supplements, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. It also dives into the etymology, taxonomy, and global distribution of the renowned “Golden Chanterelle.” Furthermore, there is a need to valorize waste materials created during production and processing, as well as to acquire a thorough understanding of the mechanisms of action of bioactive compounds in mushrooms.

This review explores the nutritional, nutraceutical, and medicinal potential of Cantharellus cibarius, known as the “Golden chanterelle.” Emphasizing its rich composition of bioactive compounds and wide range of health benefits, the review also covers ecological significance, preservation strategies, and potential applications in dietary supplements, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. Additionally, it highlights the need for further research on waste valorization and the mechanisms of action of mushroom bioactive compounds.

Abbreviations

CAD $

Canadian dollar

CCP

Cantharellus crude polysaccharide

CDK

Cyclin‐dependent kinase

DPPH

2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl

DW

Dry weight

FAOSTAT

Food and Agriculture Organization statistical

FIP

Fungal immunomodulatory proteins

FW

Fresh weight

hMNC

Human mononuclear cell

IL‐6

Interleukin‐6

iNOS

Inducible nitric oxide synthase

IU

International unit

kPa

Kilopascal

LOX

Lipoxygenase

MCF‐7

Michigan cancer foundation‐7

MFC

Minimum fungicidal concentration

MIC

Minimum inhibitory concentration

MRC‐5

Medical research council‐5

MUFA

Monounsaturated fatty acid

NFκB

Nuclear factor kappa‐light‐chain‐enhancer of activated B cells

NK

Natural killer

PAN‐C1

Pancreatic cancer cell line1

pRb

Phosphorylated retinoblastoma protein

PUFA

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

RIP

Ribosome‐inactivating proteins

ROS

Reactive oxygen species

SFA

Saturated fatty acid

TNF‐α

Tumor necrosis factor

TLR4

Toll‐like receptor 4

USD

United state dollar

USFA

Unsaturated fatty acid

1. Introduction

Fungi are the most diverse organisms on the glove containing second‐highest number of species after insects (Purvis and Hector 2000). Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Glomeromycota are the five primary phyla that make up the kingdom fungi (Arazo 2021). Based on their morphology and life cycles, fungi can be categorized into three main groups: single‐celled yeasts, multicellular filamentous molds, and macroscopic filamentous fungi (mushrooms) (Wakai et al. 2017). There are estimated 1.5 million species of fungi that can be grown in culture (Hawksworth 1991), but recent estimate accounts for 2.2–3.8 million of species worldwide (Hawksworth and Lücking 2017), while Wu et al. (2019) suggested an estimate of 11.7–13.2 million fungal species on the planet. The estimated record of the fungal fossil can be traced back to date as far as 900 million years with all major groups were present around 300 million years ago (Taylor, Remy, and Hass ¹⁹⁹⁴).

There are estimated 150,000–160,000 different species of mushrooms, of which only around 14,000 have been identified (Chang and Wasser 2017). A macro‐fungus, or mushroom, is mainly restricted to the phylum Basidiomycota and Ascomycota of the kingdom fungi (Rathore et al. 2019; Singh and Passari ²⁰¹⁸). Mushroom possesses distinctive sporocarp with a pileus that is supported by a stipe, thin membranous vellum that is produced during the development, and lamellae that form basidiospores (Mau, Miklus, and Beelman ¹⁹⁹³; Shen et al. ²⁰¹⁷) or ascospores. The sporocarp can be seen with naked eyes and grow either epigeous or hypogeous (Niazi and Ghafoor 2021). Majority of mushrooms are the members of phylum Basidiomycota, which includes about 35,000 different species (He et al. 2019). Of the 16,000 identified mushrooms, approximately 7000 exhibit varying levels of edibility (Hawksworth 2012). Primarily, there are about 3000 species of edible mushrooms, and approximately 700 have therapeutic potential (Wasser 2002; Kalac ²⁰¹³; Chang and Wasser ²⁰¹⁷; Li et al. ²⁰²¹). Around 350 different types of mushrooms are consumed by people worldwide (Willis 2018). Mushrooms and fungi have more than 100 medicinal functions, and the key medicinal properties include antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti‐inflammatory, anti‐allergic, immuno‐modulating, cardiovascular protector, anticholesterolemic, hepatoprotective, and detoxification effects; they also guard against tumorigenesis processes (Lindequist, Niedermeyer, and Jülich ²⁰⁰⁵; Zhang et al. ²⁰¹¹; Chang and Wasser ²⁰¹²; Ruthes, Smiderle, and Iacomini ²⁰¹⁶). Mushrooms possess chemically diverse secondary metabolites that exhibit several types of biological functions which are evaluated in both conventional medicine and new targets of molecular biology (Khatun et al. 2012).

Cantharellus, Craterellus, Polyozellus, and Gomphus are the four genera that are usually referred to as “Chanterelles,” on the basis of similar appearance of their spore‐bearing surfaces without magnification (Pilz et al. 2003). On the basis of multilocus phylogenetic analyses, Cantharellus species have been characterized into seven subgenera (Buyck et al. 2014). There are currently about 300 of Cantharellus species identified worldwide (Cao et al. 2021). Cantharellus species are widely dispersed and particularly abundant in subtropical to tropical regions (Corner 1966; Buyck et al. ^{2013, 2014}) and are being harvested since centuries from Europe, North America, Africa, and Asian forests, and on every continent, it is associated with the suitable host tree. The bicyclic carotenoid pigments and octenols attributing the characteristic odor of these mushrooms (Arpin and Fiasson 1971; Pyysalo ¹⁹⁷⁶; Gill and Steglich ¹⁹⁸⁷), thus due to their excellent flavor and apricot‐like aroma (Foltz, Perez, and Volk ²⁰¹³).

C. cibarius Fr. is globally known as “Chanterelle” or “Golden Chanterelle” and also recognized as golden girolle. The most well‐known and widely consumed edible species in the Cantharellus genus is Cantharellus cibarius. It grows widely from June to October in India, Thailand, China, Africa, and America, and in several other European countries (Boa 2004; Eyssartier et al. ²⁰⁰⁹; Olariaga et al. ²⁰¹⁷; Bulam, Ustun, and Peksen ²⁰²¹). It is used as natural ingredient in traditional European and Asian medicines in curing liver, lungs and stomach diseases, spleen, and eyesight problems (Bulam, Ustun, and Peksen ²⁰²¹). C. cibarius is known to exhibit antimicrobial (Santoyo et al. 2009; Aina et al. ²⁰¹²; Novakovic et al. ²⁰¹⁹; Chen and Xu ²⁰²⁴), insecticidal (Mier et al. 1996; Cieniecka‐Rosłonkiewicz et al. ²⁰⁰⁷), scavenging of lipid peroxidation (Palacios et al. 2011), antiaging, pain killer, antioxidant, and anticancer properties (Ebrahimzadeh et al. 2010; Muszyńska, Sułkowska‐Ziaja, and Ekiert ²⁰¹¹; Zaidman et al. ²⁰⁰⁵; Chen and Xu ²⁰²⁴).

The red list has classified Cantharellus and Craterellus as endangered species in many European nations (Arnolds 1995; Larsson ¹⁹⁹⁷). In Netherland, the population of C. cibarius has been decreased by 60% between 1960 and 1980 (Jansen and Van Dobben ¹⁹⁸⁷; Arnolds ¹⁹⁹⁵). The removal of wood logs and other water‐holding substances from forests (Norvell ^{1992a, 1992b}; Molina et al. ¹⁹⁹³) might also result in a reduction in the formation of carpophores. Researchers have paid a lot of interest lately on the bioactive substances obtained from various mushroom species and their potential for use in dietary supplements and pharmaceuticals. This paper provides an overview of current understanding regarding chemical make‐up, ecology, postharvest preservation methods, and prospective use in dietary supplements, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals in reference to C. cibarius.

1.1. Methodology

A detailed compilation of information was created from published sources, covering the scientific name, family, distribution, nutritional, nutraceutical, culinary, and preservation aspects of this mushroom species. Various key phrases were employed to search for articles in online databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, using terms like Cantharellus cibarius, ectomycorrhizal, nutritional, nutraceutical, medicinal, and culinary. This study analyzed a range of scientific literature, including review articles, research papers, and books published up to 2024.

2. Etymology and Taxonomy

In reference to their funnel‐like shape, the “Chanterelle” word is taken from a Greek term “kantharos,” meaning “cup,” “goblet,” or “drinking vessel” (Persson and Mossberg 1997). ″Chantarellen″ were recognized as common edible mushrooms by a Swedish naturalist Linnaeus (1747). Later he termed the golden chanterelle with the scientific name Agaricus chantarellus (Linnaeus 1755). It was Elias Fries, a Swedish scientist and botanist, who first time describes and assigned the current scientific name ″Cantharellus cibarius″ for golden chanterelle in his book Systema Mycologicum (Fries 1821), and later in 1905, the species was typified with Cantharellus cibarius Fr. (Earle 1905). Cantharellus was initially described as an artificial assembly of species with veins or folds similar to hymenophore by early authors (Fries 1821; Fries ¹⁸⁷⁴; Fuckel ¹⁸⁷⁰; Quélet ¹⁸⁸⁸), later that broad idea was subsequently narrowed to species in the cantharelloid clade (Moncalvo et al. 2006; Buyck et al. ²⁰¹⁴). The family Cantharellaceae was later revised by Petersen (1971a, 1971b) and Romagnesi (1995) using classical microscopic and chemical characteristics.

One of the eight major clades of homobasidiomycetes is the cantharelloid clade, having polyphyletic origin and includes the genus Cantharellus as a key member (Hibbett and Thorn 2001; Pilz et al. ²⁰⁰³; Binder et al. ²⁰⁰⁵; Moncalvo et al. ²⁰⁰⁶). The species in genus Cantharellus are characterized by gymnocarpic sporocarps that are fleshy, terricolous, and enduring, but not perennial (Smith and Morse 1947; Petersen ¹⁹⁸⁵; Danell ^1994a; Pegler, Roberts, and Spooner ¹⁹⁹⁷; Cairney and Chambers ¹⁹⁹⁹). Specific epithet “cibarius” is a Latin word which means “food or nutriment” (Lewis 1891). C. cibarius has a medium to big fruiting body that is generally egg‐yolk yellow in color. Gills that extend down the stalk are blunt, thick, branched, and widely spaced. At first, the cap is shallowly convex, but it quickly becomes flat, and at the center, it depresses shallowly to deeply. The margin of cap is frequently wavy and indented, and it can range from a bright yellow to an orange‐yellow that darkens when bruised, but can also fade to whitish in sunshine. Fruit body smells vaguely of dried apricots or is absent, and flavor is unremarkable. Stalk is solid, tapers downward from cap. Spore print has a light‐yellow color. Spores are smooth, ellipsoid, thin‐walled, and measure 8–11 × 4.5–5.5 μm (McKnight and McKnight ¹⁹⁸⁷). Hyphae are monomitic; cystidia are absent and clamp connections are present.

3. Ecology and Distribution

C. cibarius as shown in Figure 1 is the wellspring of the majority of information about the ecology of species in the Cantharellus genus (Danell ^1994a). Ecological preferences of C. cibarius estimated with Ellenberg's scales indicate that the species prefers a temperate climate, shade‐resistant, and is rarely observed in full illumination; mesophyte, as determined by the soil humidity scale and prefer acidic nitrogen‐poor soils, with neutral nitrogen‐rich soils serving as an exception (Luginina and Sorokina 2021).

FIGURE 1.

Photograph showing C. cibarius in its natural habitat.

The species of Cantharellus genus reacts to primary soil factors like pH, organic matter, and drainage (Jansen and Van Dobben ¹⁹⁸⁷), as well as secondary factors, for instance, humus properties (Nantel and Neumann 1992) and nitrogen (Wallenda and Kottke 1998). C. cibarius tends to favor mostly sandy soils (Jansen and Van Dobben ¹⁹⁸⁷), with low nitrogen content and a pH range of 4.0–5.5 (Jansen and Van Dobben ¹⁹⁸⁷; Danell ^1994a; Rangel‐Castro ²⁰⁰¹). Besides that, other important variables have been investigated and confirmed to be crucial for the fructification of chanterelles, such as needle cover and duff depth (Bergemann and Largent 2000), moisture, vascular plants, air and soil temperature (Amaranthus and Russell 1996), and canopy coat (Pilz, Molina, and Mayo ²⁰⁰⁶). Throughout the world, the extensive host range of C. cibarius includes coniferous and broad‐leaved plants. However, certain physiological strains are specifically adapted to particular host trees. In boreal woodlands, chanterelle sporocarps first appear in mid‐July and continue throughout late October (Danell, ^1994a, 1994b), and its development might differ significantly on locations and yearly basis (Egli et al. 2006). In southern taiga and subtaiga zones, the species is primarily found in pure pine forests or mixed (spruce and birch) in the tree stands of lichen, green‐moss and cowberry types, with low to medium crown densities (Luginina and Sorokina 2021). Fruit bodies of C. cibarius are generally found in the association with older trees (Danell ^{1994a, 1994b}). Moreover, the temperature and host's growth rate figure out the golden chanterelles production in forests when the trees are between 10 and 40 years old (Okan et al. 2014).

Cantharellus is an ectomycorrhizal genus, forms mutualistic relationship with several economically valuable trees (Redhead, Norvell, and Danell ¹⁹⁹⁷), and includes members of Pinaceae, Salicaceae, Betulaceae, Fagaceae, Juglandaceae, and Leguminosae (Danell 1999; Kumari, Upadhyay, and Reddy ²⁰¹¹; Buyck et al. ²⁰¹⁴; Henkel et al. ²⁰¹⁴; De Kesel et al. ²⁰¹⁶; Ogawa et al. ²⁰¹⁸; Cao et al. ²⁰²¹; Shao et al. ²⁰²¹). The genus Cantharellus includes about 23 species in North America, nine in Europe, seven in each of South America and Australia, 46 in Africa, 3 in New Zealand, and 19 in Asia (Eyssartier 2003; Tibuhwa et al. ²⁰⁰⁸; Eyssartier et al. ²⁰⁰⁹; Buyck and Hofstetter ²⁰¹¹; Buyck et al. ²⁰¹¹; Shao, Tian, and Liu ²⁰¹¹).

4. Nutritional Profiles

Mycophagy is a practice of eating mushrooms. The custom of collecting and eating wild edible mushrooms has a long history (Ho, Zulkifli, and Tan ²⁰²⁰). According to their intended application, mushrooms can be conveniently classified into the following three categories: edible (54%), wild (8%), and medicinal (38%) (Royse, Baars, and Tan ²⁰¹⁷). A “Mushroom” could be poisonous, edible, or unpleasant because the distinction between poisonous and edible fungi is not always discernible (Hay 1887; Arora ¹⁹⁸⁶). Mushrooms are excellent source of amino acids, proteins, glycogen, lipids, vitamins (Okhuoya et al. 2010), and minerals like phosphorus, magnesium, selenium, copper, and potassium (Mallikarjuna et al. 2013), fibers, phenolic compounds (Bano and Rajarathnam 1988; Lu et al. ²⁰²⁰), chitin, and β‐glucans (Feeney et al. 2014). High selenium content (63 μg/g DW) was reported in C. cibarius (Kolundzic et al. 2017), and selenium is an important element of rare amino acid (selenocysteine), that constitute selenoprotein. The selenoprotein plays a vital role as an antioxidant and hence reduces heart diseases and boosts immunity and cancer chemoprevention (Tinggi 2008). Selenium and copper both possess antioxidant properties that protect against damaging free radicals, therefore implicated as potential anticarcinogenic agents (Satyanarayana et al. 2006; Zuo et al. ²⁰⁰⁶).

Since the Medieval era, Chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) have been recognized as among the most beloved edible mushrooms (Lobelius 1581; Danell ^1994a). Cantharellus mushrooms are well recognized and are a preferred cuisine in various parts of the world. This mushroom is widely appreciated for its fruity, apricot‐like aroma. C. cibarius is abundant in proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and aromatic compounds (Bak et al. 2023; Chen and Xu ²⁰²⁴; Senila, Senila, and Resz ²⁰²⁴). High nutritional value of C. cibarius is due to its high amount of carbohydrates (31.9% DW), proteins (53.7% DW), β‐glucans, dietary fiber, and low levels of fat content (2.9% DW) (Muszyńska et al. 2016). Linoleic (654.706 mg kg⁻¹ DW) and oleic acids (148.168 mg kg⁻¹ DW) represent the majority of its fatty acids (Bulam, Ustun, and Peksen ²⁰²¹). Egwim, Elem, and Egwuche (2011) determined proximate composition of edible wild mushrooms including C. cibarius and reported carbohydrate (18%), crude protein (26.25%), fat (9.14%), and crude fiber (13.64%). Kolundzic et al. (2017) reported α‐glucan, β‐glucan, and total glucans in dry, cooked as well as in methanolic and aqueous extract of C. cibarius. The amount of β‐glucans was 14.90–0.38 mg/g in a dried sample. It possesses the highest quantity of threonine and lysine as 8.98 and 5.74 mg g⁻¹ DW, respectively (Beluhan and Ranogajec 2011; Muszyńska et al. ²⁰¹⁶; Nyman et al. ²⁰¹⁶). It contains several vitamins, notably thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, niacin, and ascorbic acid. Additionally, it also contains the vitamin B complex, vitamin A, E, D2, and minerals including calcium (973.17), potassium (67411.93), and phosphorus (5126.47), with low amount of selenium as 0.61 and 0.153 mg kg⁻¹ DW (Costa‐Silva et al. ²⁰¹¹; Muszyńska et al. ²⁰¹⁶; Bulam, Pekşen, and Ustun ²⁰¹⁹; Bulam, Ustun, and Peksen ²⁰¹⁹).

4.1. Carbohydrates

Mushrooms are a promising source of novel prebiotic components since they are rich in indigestible carbohydrates (Sawangwan et al. 2018; Aida et al. ²⁰⁰⁹). Moreover, there is belief that mushrooms having high mannitol content and lower glycemic index are beneficial for diabetic persons (Kozarski et al. 2015). Additionally, mushrooms also contain a high amount of complex polysaccharides. These compounds are pharmacologically crucial, and for example, lectins have antitumor and immunomodulating attributes (Wang et al. 1996; Imberty et al. ²⁰⁰⁰; Yau et al. ²⁰¹⁵), hypotensive effects (Tam et al. 1986), and antiangiogenesis effects (Jana and Acharya 2020). The common carbohydrates of various mushrooms that display significant biological activities are fructose, glucose, xylose, mannose, fucose, rhamnose, maltose, mannitol, sucrose, and trehalose (Zaidman et al. 2005; Zhang et al. ²⁰⁰⁷; Ferreira, Barros, and Abreu ²⁰⁰⁹; Alves, Ferreira, Dias, et al. ²⁰¹³; Alves, Ferreira, Froufe, et al. ²⁰¹³).

In C. cibarius, carbohydrates comprise 31.9% (Muszyńska et al. 2016) and 66.07 g/100 g DW (Ouzouni et al. 2009). Total carbohydrate content in Craterellus cibarius was 12.25 and 58.67 mg g⁻¹ in fresh and dry weight, respectively; 33.63 and 49.99 mg g⁻¹ in fresh and dry weight of Cantharellus tubiformis, respectively; and 62.75 and 144.38 mg g⁻¹ in fresh and dry weight of C. cibarius, respectively (Salihovic et al. 2021). Chanterelle contains trehalose (6.68 g), mannitol (8.56 g), mannose (8.56 g), and glucose (7.98 g) per 100 g dry weight (Kumari, Reddy, and Upadhyay ²⁰¹¹). In reference to fresh weight, Croatian C. cibarius contains 31.91 g carbohydrates, 2.9 g of lipids, 8.8 g of ash, and 118 kJ of energy (Muszyńska et al. 2016). C. cibarius harvested from Greece contain more sugar contents (66.07 g/100 g DW) as compared to croatian counterpart (Ouzouni et al. 2009; Beluhan and Ranogajec ²⁰¹¹). In Cantharellus spp., high carbohydrate concentration (64.24%) was observed by Ugbogu et al. (2020), approximately 54% for C. cibarius (Panchak et al. 2020), and 30.4 mg g⁻¹DW of extract in C. cibarius (Kozarski et al. 2015). Two glucan type polysaccharides (PsCcib‐I and II) were isolated from the wild edible C. cibarius. The polysaccharide isolated from hot aqueous NaOH fraction (PsCcib‐II) exhibited a triple helical conformation (Villares et al. 2013). Polysaccharides of chanterelles like other carbohydrates (β‐glucans) of Basidiomycota species exhibited multifrontal antioxidant, anticancer, or chemoprevention activities (Jin and Lu 2011; Nowacka‐Jechalke, Olech, and Nowak ²⁰¹⁸). They bind to free radicals, stimulate immune system or induce apoptosis, thus, prevent DNA damage, inhibit the activation and concentration of carcinogens, and restrict the development of neoplastic cells (Muszyńska et al. 2016). Three different polysaccharides, a water soluble (1–6) α‐D‐mannan and two types of β‐glucans, were isolated by Nyman et al. (2016) from C. cibarius mushroom. A unique polysaccharide (JP1) was purified by Chen et al. (2017) from the same species and found that it can facilitate the induction of peritoneal macrophages to release nitric oxide (NO), and increase the secretion of cytokines (IL‐6) in macrophage cell line (RAW264.7) of mouse. A new heteropolysaccharide (CC‐1) extracted from C. cibarius exhibited substantial in vitro antioxidant activity and immune cell proliferation effect (Zhao et al. 2018). The study revealed that CC‐1 has the potential to scavenge ABTS⁺ and DPPH free radicals at certain concentration levels.

4.2. Proteins and Amino Acids

Mushrooms are excellent source of proteins and play key role in both nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. The quantity of protein in mushrooms is nearly four times higher than that of tomatoes, six times that of oranges, and twelve times that of apples (Kakon, Choudhury, and Saha ²⁰¹²; Chang ²⁰⁰³). One of the essential parts of Chantarelle is crude proteins. Ugbogu et al. (2020) have observed crude proteins content (13.71%–53.7%) in Cantharellus species. C. cibarius contain protein content (21.57 g/100 g) in dry mass of fruiting body (Ouzouni et al. 2009), and it was 9.3 mg g⁻¹ DW of methanol extract (Kozarski et al. 2015).

The proteins like fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs), antifungal and antimicrobial proteins (Lam and Ng ^{2001a, 2001b}; Wong et al. ²⁰¹⁰; Diling et al. ²⁰¹⁷), ribonucleases (Kobayashi et al. 1992), ubiquitin‐like proteins (Lam, Ng, and Wang ²⁰⁰¹; Zhou et al. ²⁰¹⁷), ribosome‐inactivating proteins (RIPs) (Lam and Ng ^{2001a, 2001b}; Wang and Ng ^{2001a, 2001b}; Wong, Wang, and Ng ²⁰⁰⁸), lectins (Yagi et al. 1997; She, Ng, and Liu ¹⁹⁹⁸; Marty‐Detraves et al. ²⁰⁰⁴), and laccases (Garzillo et al. 2001; Fukuda et al. ²⁰⁰¹; Tinoco, Pickard, and Vazquez‐Duhalt ²⁰⁰¹) are a few examples of mushroom proteins and these have interesting biological activities (Ng 2004; Xu et al. ²⁰¹¹). Several types of mushrooms contain lectins—the proteins that bind to carbohydrates. These mushroom protein “Lectins” have shown medicinal potentials including antitumor, antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, immunomodulatory, and antiproliferative activity (Singh, Bhari, and Kaur ²⁰¹⁰; Chatterjee, Halder, and Das ²⁰²¹). The lectins found in chanterelle extracts typically agglutinate human type erythrocytes (Muszyńska et al. 2016). According to Lam, Ng, and Wang (2001), lectins and ubiquitin‐like proteins have antiproliferative effects on tumor cell lines and antimitogenic effects on spleen cells. They also have immunomodulatory and HIV‐1 RTase‐inhibitory effects (Wang et al. 1995; Wang and Ng ^{2001a, 2001b}; Wu, Wang, and Ng ²⁰¹¹). A ubiquitin‐like peptide in C. cibarius possesses ribonucleolytic activity towards different polyhomoribonucleotides (Wang, Ngai, and Ng ²⁰⁰³).

The laccases are copper‐containing ligninolytic enzymes, and they have potential applications in biotechnology (Palmieri et al. 1993; Brenna and Bianchi ¹⁹⁹⁴; Couto and Herrera ²⁰⁰⁶; Guest and Rashid ²⁰¹⁶), like bio‐bleaching of paper pulp (Lu and Xia 2004; Camarero et al. ²⁰⁰⁴; Gutierrez et al. ²⁰⁰⁷; Camarero et al. ²⁰⁰⁷), bio‐catalysts in decolorization of synthetic recalcitrant dye (Hou et al. 2004; Camarero et al. ²⁰⁰⁵; Palmieri, Cennamo, and Sannia ²⁰⁰⁵; Michniewicz et al. ²⁰⁰⁸), detoxification or treatment of industrial effluents (Murugesan 2003; Dodor, Hwang, and Ekunwe ²⁰⁰⁴; Jaouani et al. ²⁰⁰⁵; Wu et al. ²⁰⁰⁸), and organic synthesis (Mikolasch et al. 2002; Karamyshev et al. ²⁰⁰³; Ncanana and Burton ²⁰⁰⁷). The mushrooms are rich source of laccase enzymes. The primary medicinal properties of laccases from basidiomycetes that have been documented so far include anticancer (Guest and Rashid 2016), antitumor, antibacterial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and hypocholesterolemic activity (Jasim 2017). Antiproliferative activity of some mushroom proteins has been proved toward human hepatoma Hep G2 cells and T‐cell leukemia, and laccases are cytotoxic to breast cancer (MCF‐7) cells by targeting 17β‐estradiol (Xu et al. 2011; Guest and Rashid ²⁰¹⁶). Ng and Wang (2004) isolated a homodimeric laccase from the sporocarp of C. cibarius.

Chanterelles contain high content of lysine and threonine amino acids (5.74 and 8.98 mg g⁻¹ DW) (Beluhan and Ranogajec 2011). Cantharellus species contain glutamic acid (12.90 g), aspartic acid (7.74 g), leucine (7.56 g), and low tryptophan (0.92 g) per 100 g of protein (Ugbogu et al. 2020). Amino acid content was approximately 4.5% for C. cibarius (Panchak et al. 2020). Mushrooms are important source of a unique biomolecule, for example, ergothioneine, act as an essential antioxidant, improve health, and can be used as a food preservative, thus encouraging their use as functional foods. It is natural occurring amino acid and biologically derived from histidine (Richard‐Greenblatt et al. ²⁰¹⁵; Rathore et al. ²⁰¹⁹; Borodina et al. ²⁰²⁰). Ergothioneine was recorded 4.09 mg g⁻¹ DW of C. cibarius (Martinez‐Medina et al. ²⁰²¹). Fruiting bodies of several types of mushrooms are rich source of free amino acids. C. cibarius contains several types of L‐amino acids/mg mL⁻¹ such as arginine (146.70), cystine (55.84), methionine (17.67), alanine (168.0), phenylalanine (72.10), lysine (65.80), valine (25.30), glycine (83.24), and leucine (65.74) (Salihovic et al. 2019). Craterellus cibarius contain alanine in higher amount, that is, 6.87 and 10.5 mg g⁻¹ in fresh and dry, respectively. In C. cibarius, arginine present in higher amount, that is, 10.4 and 9.75 mg g⁻¹ in fresh and dry weight, respectively (Salihovic et al. 2021).

4.3. Lipids

Mushrooms are rich in essential fatty acids (52%–87% USFA), especially linoleic acid, which the body unable to produce on its own, but required for health (Mokochinski et al. 2015; Chaturvedi et al. ²⁰¹⁸). Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are mostly found in edible mushrooms and enable them to significantly lower serum cholesterol (Chatterjee, Halder, and Das ²⁰²¹). Majority of mushrooms contain PUFA, particularly linoleic acid, an essential omega‐6 fatty acid (Sande et al. 2019). Linoleic acid performs various physiological functions, including lowering blood pressure, triglyceride levels, cardiovascular disorders, and arthritis (Puttaraju et al. 2006; Ferreira, Barros, and Abreu ²⁰⁰⁹; Reis et al. ²⁰¹²; Alves, Ferreira, Dias, et al. ²⁰¹³; Alves, Ferreira, Froufe, et al. ²⁰¹³). Fatty acids display remarkable antifungal and antimicrobial properties (Muszyńska et al. 2016). Edible mushrooms also contain important sterols (e.g., ergosterol) that may also be responsible for the antioxidant activity. According to research, sterols rich diet can help avoid cardiovascular problems (Barros et al. 2007; Kalac ²⁰¹³). A fatty acid, that is, acetylenic acid isolated from C. cibarius, displays a significant transcriptional activity toward peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor γ (PPARγ), which controls inflammatory processes and cell growth and regulates metabolism of glucose and lipids (Muszyńska et al. 2016).

Fresh chanterelles contain ergosterol (24.7 mg), ergosta‐7‐enol (0.2 mg), and an equal amount (0.4 mg) of ergosta‐7,22‐dienol and ergosta‐5,7‐dienol (Muszyńska et al. 2016). The mushroom C. cibarius contain palmitic, palmitoleic, oleic, lauric, myristic, pentadecanoic, heptadecanoic, stearic, arachidonic, linoleic, behenic, cis‐8,11,14‐eicosatrienoic, cis‐11,14‐eicosadienoic, lignoceric, and tricosanoic acids. The major fatty acids were reported to be linoleic acid as 654.706 mg and oleic acid as of 148.168 mg (kg⁻¹ DW); however, arachidonic acid was reported for the first time in C. cibarius (Ribeiro et al. 2009). High level of oleic acid (12.45%) has been recorded in Cantharellus species, followed by stearic acid (11.28%) and palmitic acid (8.05%) (Ugbogu et al. 2020).

The C. cibarius sporocarps contain a number of fatty acids, with 14,15‐dehydrocrepenyic acid being among the most prominent. It is found both as a free fatty acid and as a triglyceride. 14, 15‐dehydrocrepenyic acid is thought to be the precursor of cibaric acid (Pang and Sterner 1991). Linoleic acid (31.42%) reported to be a dominant component in hexane fraction of C. cibarius (Panchak et al. 2020). Ayaz et al. (2011) recorded 45.6% linoleic acid, 8.4% oleic acid, and the essential fatty acids in Chantharellus cibarius of Turkey. Kavishree et al. (2008) reported 20.8% linoleic acid and 25.9% oleic acid in Cantharellus clavatus from India. Ouzouni et al. (2009) reported that fruiting body of C. cibarius contains fat content (2.88 g) per 100 g dry fruiting body mass. Kolundzic et al. (2017) determined the various fatty acids, that is, MUFA (0.86%–45.43%) with oleic acid and cis‐vaccenic acid as principal fatty acids, followed by PUFA (0.53%–33.77%) having linoleic acid as the predominant fatty acid (0.50%–31.80%) in cyclohexane extract of C. cibarius. Along with fatty acid analysis, several types of ergosterol derivatives were identified by them in C. cibarius, that is, ergosta‐5,7,9 (Kozarski et al. 2015); 5,6‐dihydroergosterol; 22‐tetraen‐3b‐ol; ergosta‐4,6,8; ergosta‐5,7‐dien3‐ol; ergosterol; 22‐tetraen‐3‐one; and ergosterol acetate, euphorbol, and lanosterol as well. Chanterelle contains more saturated fatty acid (SFA) that accounts for 926.953 mg/kg dry matter followed by PUFA (655.176) and MUFA (148.493) (Ribeiro et al. 2009). Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are more potent fungicides in comparison with saturated fatty acids (SFA). Additionally, its apricot‐like and cooked carrot‐like odor is due to aromatic C₈ volatile compounds, that is, 3‐octanone, (E)‐2‐ octenol, (E)‐2‐octenal, and octanal (Aisala et al. 2019), and 1‐octen‐3‐ol that is synthesized during free linoleic acid oxidation reaction catalyzed by oxidoreductases. This reaction is intensified, particularly during drying process (Kalac 2009).

4.4. Vitamins and Minerals

Edible mushrooms are rich wellspring of nutritionally significant vitamins (group B, C, D, and E) (Vetter 1994; Mattila, Suonpää, and Piironen ²⁰⁰⁰; Mattila et al. ²⁰⁰¹; Heleno et al. ²⁰¹⁰; Kalaras, Beelman, and Elias ²⁰¹²). The B‐vitamins that are most frequently recorded in edible mushrooms include thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, folic acid, cobalamin, and nicotinamide (Assemie and Abaya 2022). In today's scenario, oxidative stress contributes to the progression of numerous chronic conditions, such as diabetes and cancer (Ceriello and Motz 2004), as well as other cardiovascular diseases (Heitzer et al. 2001). Recent research suggested that antioxidants can control autoxidation by inhibiting or preventing the free radical proliferation and thus subsequently reduce oxidative stress, boost immune function, and lengthen healthy lifespan (Tan et al. 2018). Vitamins C and E, tocopherols, and carotenoids react with free radicals, especially peroxyl radicals and singlet molecular oxygen, which is the basis of their antioxidant activity (Sies, Stahl, and Sundquist ¹⁹⁹²). There are few overlooked antioxidant vitamins that include vitamin D, vitamin K, riboflavin, pyridoxine, and niacin which function as coenzymes to combat free radicals, and their deficiencies hasten the development of oxidative stress (Sinbad et al. 2019). The substances that are responsible for antioxidant activity also have a variety of biological effects, including the protection from malignancy, heart diseases, and various degenerative disorders (Chatterjee, Halder, and Das ²⁰²¹). Vitamin E has potential to prevent DNA damage and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, which is due to its antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, and anticancer activities (Jiang 2014). Number of researchers are aware with salient functions of various vitamins like, Phytonadione (vitamin K) as neuroprotective (Li et al. 2003), riboflavin and calcitriol control lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation (Wang et al. 2011; AlJohri, AlOkail, and Haq ²⁰¹⁸), and vitamin B12 increase viability of retinal ganglion cells (Chan et al. 2018).

Chanterelle mushrooms have a wealth of vitamins A and E. In nature, vitamin E occurs in eight different forms: α‐, β‐, γ‐, and δ‐tocotrienol and α‐, β‐, γ‐, and δ‐tocopherol (Barros et al. 2008; Jiang ²⁰¹⁴). Ergocalciferol, tocopherols, and carotenoids have also been reported in the chanterelle, and the tocopherol content was reported to be approximately 0.82% (Panchak et al. 2020). Fresh chanterelle is also a good source of vitamin D2 (14.2 μg/100 g FW), while dried sporocarps hold 0.12–6.3 μg g⁻¹ of ergocalciferol after 2–6 years of storage (Muszyńska et al. 2016). C. cibarius contain high content of ergocalciferol as equivalent to those in fish. Ergocalciferol concentrations in different dried fruiting bodies varied from 0.12 to 6.30 μg g⁻¹ (Rangel‐Castro, Staffas, and Danell ²⁰⁰²), and the folic acid content of C. cibarius was reported 5.07 g/100 g in C. cibarius by Egwim, Elem, and Egwuche (2011). Vitamin A level recorded the highest (16.65 IU/100 g) in quantity as compared to other vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, and C) in Cantharellus species (Ugbogu et al. 2020). Fresh mass of C. cibarius contains high content of vitamin C (1.95 mg g⁻¹) and low (0.52 mg g⁻¹) in dry mass (Salihovic et al. 2021).

Mushrooms collected from natural habitats are the common constituents of nutritionally valuable minerals (Falandysz and Borovička 2013), like, Se, Cu, K, P, Mg, Mn, Na, Fe, Ca (Mattila et al. 2001), and zinc that are required for proper regulation of metabolic pathways (Das et al. 2021). Minerals from the growth media are accumulated in the sporocarps of mushrooms (Rajarathnam, Shashirekha, and Bano ¹⁹⁹⁸; Kalac ²⁰¹⁰). Attempts are being made in biofortification of cultivated mushrooms with biologically active and medicinally important minerals, like Se, Li, and Fe (da Silva et al. ²⁰¹⁰; Hong et al. ²⁰¹¹; De Assuncao et al. ²⁰¹²; Kaur, Kalia, and Sodhi ²⁰¹⁷; Budzyńska et al. ²⁰²²). Moreover, selenium acts as a strong antioxidant mineral (Jayachandran et al. 2018).

Falandysz and Drewnowska (2015) provided information of elements found in C. cibarius from Poland. Similar investigation was performed by Drewnowska and Falandysz (2015) with the same species. Fruiting bodies of chanterelle investigated from all places were comparatively rich in essential elements, viz., K, P, Cu, Mg, Zn, Mn, Ca, Na, Co, and Fe. This mushroom, that is, C. cibarius, efficiently accumulates K, P, Cu, Na, Rb, Cd, Ag, and Zn from the soil. A high content of calcium was recorded in C. cibarius followed by K and P (Wang et al. 2014; Kolundzic et al. ²⁰¹⁷). Ugbogu et al. (2020) reported highest level of Ca²⁺ions followed by K⁺ and Fe²⁺ ions in Cantharellus species.

Additionally, mushrooms are regarded as promising bioremediation agents for soils contaminated with heavy metals, with many edible species capable of efficiently accumulating these metals in their tissues (Drewnowska et al. 2017). The presence of chemical elements in food, both essential and harmful to humans, such as As, Cd, Hg, and Pb, raises significant concerns among consumers (Drewnowska and Falandysz 2015). C. cibarius is known to accumulate heavy metals like Cu, Cd, Hg, and Pb (Falandysz et al. 2012; Drewnowska et al. ²⁰¹⁷; Balta et al. ²⁰¹⁸; Uzun et al. ²⁰²³). Therefore, techniques for reducing heavy metal concentrations prior to consumption are essential. According to research, blanching fresh chanterelles can decrease cadmium (Cd) levels by approximately 11% ± 7% to 36% ± 7%, while blanching frozen mushrooms can reduce Cd content by about 40 ± 6%. Both blanching and pickling are shown to significantly lower Cd levels in C. cibarius (Drewnowska et al. 2017). When sliced fruiting bodies of Imleria badia were boiled under reflux for 15–60 min, cadmium (Cd) leaching was more effective in frozen mushrooms (58%) compared to fresh ones (36%), with boiling duration having no significant effect. For C. cibarius, simply washing the halved fruiting bodies under running tap water for about 45 s prior to cooking increased the amount of liquid released and enhanced the removal of radionuclides, specifically ¹³⁷Cs and ¹³⁴Cs, by approximately 30% during cooking (with vegetable oil in a pan) (Steinhauser and Steinhauser 2016).

5. Nutraceuticals and Medicinal Profile

“Nutraceuticals” term was first time coined in 1989 by Stephen De Felice (Kalra 2003). According to Daliu, Santini, and Novellino (2018), “A product could be considered as nutraceutical, if it has a positive effect on health, confirmed by clinical testing.” Nutraceuticals are dietary supplements having noteworthy health benefits and also prevent the onset of several maladies (Chatterjee, Halder, and Das ²⁰²¹) by strengthening human performance (Chang and Buswell 1996; Prasad et al. ²⁰¹⁵; Ma et al. ²⁰¹⁸).

Medicinal mushrooms are defined as those that produce secondary metabolites and have a variety of biological purposes. Approximately 270 different kinds of mushrooms have therapeutic potential (Shamtsyan 2010), and only a small proportion of mushrooms are considered as nutraceutical mushrooms (Wu et al. 2019). Mushrooms have been used as food and even as medicine for thousands of years (Beelman, Kalaras, and Richie ²⁰¹⁹), particularly in Asian countries (Japan, China, and Korea), as well as in some regions of Africa (Ozturk et al. 2015). These days many of them are being used against immune disorders and cancer risk as a supplementary medicine (Novak and Vetvicka 2008; Ooi ²⁰⁰⁸; Wasser ²⁰¹¹; Ren et al. ²⁰¹²). In addition to their nutritional, delicacy, and functional qualities, mushrooms are considered as nutraceutical foods having medicinal and organoleptic properties (Ergönül et al. 2013; Phat, Moon, and Lee ²⁰¹⁶; Rahi and Malik ²⁰¹⁶). Based on bioactive properties of mushrooms, they have become popularized as a functional food, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceuticals (Jones and Janardhanan 2000; Lakhanpal and Rana ²⁰⁰⁵).

Mushrooms contain several types of nutraceuticals, such as lectins, lentinan, β‐glucan, proteoglycan, ganoderic acid, phenolics, triterpenoids, flavonoids, hispolon, calcaelin, laccase, ergosterol, nucleosides, and nucleotides (Patel and Goyal 2012; Ina, Kataoka, and Ando ²⁰¹³; El Enshasy and Hatti‐Kaul ²⁰¹³; Papoutsis et al. ²⁰²⁰). They also contain protocatechuic, p‐hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, syringic, gentisic, cinnamic, veratric, salicylic, p‐coumaric, gallic (Alves, Ferreira, Dias, et al. ²⁰¹³; Alves, Ferreira, Froufe, et al. ²⁰¹³), caffeic, and ferulic acids (Nowacka‐Jechalke, Olech, and Nowak ²⁰¹⁸). In general, on the basis of chemical compositions and interactions with biochemical functions, mushroom nutraceuticals exhibit a variety of biological functions, which include anticarcinogenic, antitumor, anti‐inflammatory, antimycotic, anti‐obesity, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, antihypercholesterolemic, and antimutagenic (Borchers et al. 2008; Zhang et al. ²⁰⁰⁹; Valverde, Hernández‐Pérez, and Paredes‐López ²⁰¹⁵; Reis et al. ²⁰¹⁷).

C. cibarius is used in the treatment of boils and various types of abscesses and also acts as antihelmintic (Panchak et al. 2020). Moreover, decoction prepared from chantarelle mushrooms is employed as a food adjuvant in making functional frankfurters with high antimicrobial and antioxidant qualities as well as low sensorial alterations. Chantarelles are enriched with antioxidants and thus could be utilized in food products like cooked pork sausages to prevent chemical degradation and to enhance their shelf life (Novakovic et al. 2019; Novaković et al. ²⁰²⁰). C. cibarius is rich in minerals, carbohydrates, and free amino acids that are involved in maintaining immune system functional. Several biological properties like antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, antimicrobial, antihypoxic, antihyperglycemic, wound‐healing, cytotoxicity, and iron‐chelating activity are shown by C. cibarius (Figure 2) (Vlasenko et al. 2019). The review has covered the most common medicinal properties of C. cibarius, which include antimicrobial, antimycotic, antihelminth, antihypoxic, cytotoxicity, antihyperglycemic, anticancerous, antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, iron‐chelation, and wound‐healing properties.

FIGURE 2.

Biological activities of C. cibarius.

5.1. Bioactive Compounds and Pharmacological Properties

Bioactive substances are the molecules with therapeutic potential that can improve energy intake, lower down pro‐inflammatory states, reduce oxidative stresses, and overcome metabolic disfunctions (Siriwardhana et al. 2013), and thus ultimately promote better health. Bioactive compounds can influence metabolic reactions and exhibit antioxidant activity, inhibition of receptors, suppression or induction of enzymes, and gene expression (Carbonell‐Capella et al. ²⁰¹⁴). There has been a growing interest in biologically active substances of mushrooms that have therapeutic or health benefits for mankind in curing and preventing various diseases (Rathee et al. 2012). The bioactives of mushrooms are polysaccharides (e.g., β‐glucans) and cell wall proteins, or phenolics, terpenes, and steroids as secondary metabolites (Sánchez 2017).

Medicinal mushrooms contain some unique polysaccharides that prevent the cancer like life‐threatening disease and have immunomodulatory property which strengthen the immune system (Ozturk et al. 2015). The polysaccharides have potential role in modern medicine, where β‐glucan regarded as a flexible metabolite confer a broad spectrum of biological functions (Patel and Goyal 2012; Chang and Wasser ²⁰¹²; El Khoury et al. ²⁰¹²; Finimundy et al. ²⁰¹³). Polysaccharides of C. cibarius have numerous bioactivities such as antitumor, anticancer, antioxidant, immune‐modulatory, immune‐stimulatory, neuroprotective, antiproliferative, prebiotic, and chemopreventive. Moreover, its crude extracts also have antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, antihypertensive, antiinflammatory, antiangiogenic, antigenotoxic, antihypoxic, cardioprotective, antimicrobial, antiviral, LOX inhibition, cytotoxic, wound‐repairing, and age delaying properties (Muszyńska et al. 2016; Nasiry, Khalatbary, and Ebrahimzadeh ²⁰¹⁷; Nowacka‐Jechalke, Olech, and Nowak ²⁰¹⁸; Turfan et al. ²⁰¹⁹; Badalyan and Rapior ²⁰²⁰; Thu et al. ²⁰²⁰; Uthan et al. ²⁰²¹; Marathe et al. ²⁰²¹).

Several studies have documented mushrooms as natural affluent sources of phenolics and flavonoids (Manzi et al. 2004; Valentao et al. ²⁰⁰⁵; Barros et al. ²⁰⁰⁸; Nowacka et al. ²⁰¹⁴; Woldegiorgis et al. ²⁰¹⁴; Heleno, Martins, et al. ²⁰¹⁵; Sarikurcku et al. ²⁰¹⁵), and these are important groups of biologically active compounds in the mushrooms (Oskoueian et al. 2011). Phenolics mainly including the phenolic acids, lignans, hydroxycinnamic acids, tannins, hydroxybenzoic acids, stilbenes, flavonoids, and oxidized polyphenols are found in mushrooms (D'Archivio et al. ²⁰¹⁰; Thu et al. ²⁰²⁰). The phenolic compounds display antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial activities, reduce inflammations, and protect from carcer (Silva et al. 2004; Soobrattee et al. ²⁰⁰⁵; Reis et al. ²⁰¹¹; Wang et al. ²⁰¹⁴; Heleno, Ferreira, et al. ²⁰¹⁵; Heleno, Barros, et al. ²⁰¹⁵). A few studies (Reis et al. 2012; Smolskaitė, Venskutonis, and Talou ²⁰¹⁵) have correlated the polyphenols with antioxidant activity. In mushroom extracts, phenolic compounds function as antioxidant by acting as peroxidase decomposers, metal inactivators, oxygen scavengers, or free radical inhibitors (Dziezak 1986).

The chanterelle mushrooms contain various kinds of phenolic compounds and organic acids (Valentao et al. 2005). C. cibarius contain major groups of primary as well as secondary bioactive metabolites, for instance, flavonoids, phenolic acids, sterols, fatty acids, organic acids, indole groups, carbohydrates, vitamins (tocopherols), amino acids, enzymes, bioelements, carotenoids, and 5ˊ‐nucleotides (Nyman et al. 2016; Muszyńska et al. ²⁰¹⁶; Thu et al. ²⁰²⁰; Panchak et al. ²⁰²⁰). These bioactive components might be utilized in pharmaceuticals or nutritional adjuncts (Muszyńska et al. 2016).

Flavonoids are natural compounds with a polyphenolic structure. They play key role in cellular enzymatic functions because of their antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, anti‐inflammatory (Panche, Diwan, and Chandra ²⁰¹⁶), and cardioprotective function that generally associated with their antioxidant properties (Aaby, Hvattum, and Skrede ²⁰⁰⁴). Flavonoids are considered highly efficient free radical scavengers among several oxidizers, act against ROS and many other free radicals that are probably responsible for DNA damage and tumorigenesis (Le Marchand ²⁰⁰²). In addition to phenolics, mushrooms including chanterelle have been reported to contain flavonoids that scavenge free radical and ultimately block the radical reactions that occur at the time of triglyceride oxidation in the food system (Barros et al. 2008). The most susceptible cellular components that can be damaged by free radicals are lipids (by peroxidation process), proteins (by denaturation process), and nucleic acids (disturbing normal cell cycle). Protein denaturation is a major reason of inflammation and leads to the onset of rheumatoid arthritis. C. cibarius extracts show erythrocyte membrane stabilization effect and antiproteinase activity. The release of lysosomal constituents causes inflammation and damage which could be reduced by stabilizing the lysosomal membrane (Siju et al. 2015).

5.1.1. Antimicrobial and Antimycotic Activity

Mushrooms might be an alternative option for novel antimicrobial compounds. They provide several types of primary (peptides, proteins, and oxalic acid) as well as secondary metabolites including steroids, terpenes, and quinolones (Valverde, Hernández‐Pérez, and Paredes‐López ²⁰¹⁵). C. cibarius exhibits antibacterial and antifungal attributes (Dulger, Gonuz, and Gucin ²⁰⁰⁴; Barros et al. ²⁰⁰⁸; Santoyo et al. ²⁰⁰⁹; Ramesh and Pattar ²⁰¹⁰; Aina et al. ²⁰¹²; Alves, Ferreira, Dias, et al. ²⁰¹³; Alves, Ferreira, Froufe, et al. ²⁰¹³) and trypanocidal attributes (Ustun, Kaiser, and Tasdemir ²⁰¹¹; Abedo et al. ²⁰¹⁵). The acetone and methanol extract of C. cibarius also had antimicrobial activity (Aina et al. 2012; Kosanic, Rankovic, and Dasic ²⁰¹³) and also reported for its liquid culture (Popova 2015). High cidal activity of phenolic acids has been reported against the majority of bacterial groups. Phenolic acids (2,4‐dihydroxybenzoic, vanillic, syringic acids) inhibited more methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) at MICs (0.5 mg/mL) than methicillin sensible Staphylococcus aureus (Alves, Ferreira, Dias, et al. ²⁰¹³; Alves, Ferreira, Froufe, et al. ²⁰¹³).

Mushroom could be used in prevention and treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection because of their valuable compounds (polyphenols and polysaccharides). All different extracts of C. cibarius performed dynamically at varying degree of MICs (62.5–250 μg/mL). Minimum inhibitory concentrations (4–32 μg/mL) were recorded for methanolic extract against H. pylori strains (Kolundzic et al. 2017). The decoction of C. cibarius displayed bactericidal activity at maximum concentration (20 mg/mL) toward Yersinia enterocolitica and Listeria monocytogenes . The fungistatic and fungicidal activity of decoction was significantly better against Candida albicans at MIC/MFC (10 mg/mL) (Novakovic et al. 2019).

5.1.2. Anticancerous and Cytotoxic Activity

About 660 species of higher basidiomycetes possess antitumor activity (Zaidman et al. 2005). As well‐known that edible mushrooms have numerous bioactive compounds and polysaccharides are one of the main constituents (Chen et al. 2018; Sharma, Singh, and Singh ²⁰¹⁸). These polysaccharides have the ability of generating innate immune responses by boosting NO secretion and expression of pro‐inflammatory interleukins (IL‐1, IL‐6, IL‐10, IL‐12, and TNF‐α) in macrophages (Wang and Mazza 2002; Doyle and O'Neill ²⁰⁰⁶; Lai, Yang, and Lin ²⁰¹⁵; Han et al. ²⁰¹⁵; Zhang et al. ²⁰²²; Ye et al. ²⁰²⁰). A polysaccharide (CCP) from Craterellus cornucopioides is reported to activate the TLR4–NFκB pathway at concentration (40 μg/mL), which led to the increase in phagocytic function, expression of receptor (TLR4), production of cytokines, and protein kinases (Guo et al. 2020). Homopolymer and extremely complex heteropolymer glycans show antitumor activity (Chatterjee, Halder, and Das ²⁰²¹). The phenomenal activities of polysaccharides obtained from C. cibarius are shown in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3.

Different activities of carbohydrates isolated from C. cibarius (CCP, Cantharellus crude polysaccharide; COX, cyclooxygenase; NK, natural killer cell; WCCp‐N‐b, a polysaccharide; Human A549 and LS180 cancer cell line).

The enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) is responsible for producing the prostanoids, that is, prostaglandins, prostacyclins, and thromboxanes—that cause inflammation (Ricciotti and FitzGerald ²⁰¹¹). Anti‐inflammatory therapeutics might be responsible for the deactivation of two (COX‐1 and COX‐2) isoforms of COX enzymes. Interesting chemopreventive potential is present in C. cibarius, particularly in the treatment of colon cancer. This chanterelle species contains a unique monosaccharide with having the potential to inhibit the activation of COX‐1 and COX‐2 isoforms (Nowacka‐Jechalke, Olech, and Nowak ²⁰¹⁸), but does not show any cytotoxicity toward normal human colon (CCD 841 CoTr) cells across the entire applied concentrations. A methanolic extract of C. cibarius is selectively cytotoxic to human cervix adenocarcinoma cells (HeLa line), K562 cell line, and MDA‐MB‐453 cell line as compared to normal lung cells (Kozarski et al. 2015). But it was observed that C. cibarius extracts (cyclohexane and dichloromethane) equally affect HeLa, N87 cells, and healthy MRC‐5 cells (Kolundzic et al. 2017). Cytotoxic effects of the extracts were also assessed toward primary mammalian L6 cells (Ustun, Kaiser, and Tasdemir ²⁰¹¹). Methanolic extracts of C. cibarius also exhibit high cytotoxic activity and induce apoptotic necrosis in A549 cells. Piceatannol an analog of resveratrol is identified from this mushroom as an active ingredient which is known for antiproliferative activity (Vasdekis et al. 2018).

Polysaccharides from medicinal mushrooms can activate macrophages, cytotoxic lymphocytes (NK cells), leukocytes (neutrophils), and induce gene expression of cytokines and interleukins (Zhao et al. 2020). Mushrooms contain a water‐soluble polysaccharide (β‐glucan) that triggers attack on tumor cells by T cells, NK cells, macrophages, and cytokines (Vetvicka et al. 2008). Branched mannans could be a new option in fighting colon cancer. Branched mannan obtained from CC2a fraction of C. cibarius enhances survival, proliferation, and anticancer property of human natural killer cells (NK92) against the human A549 and LS180 cancer cell line (Lemieszek et al. 2019; Lemieszek, Nunes, and Rzeski ²⁰¹⁹). NF‐κB activity stimulates proliferation of tumor cells and suppression of apoptosis, initiates angiogenesis, and activates epithelial–mesenchymal transition that promotes distant metastasis (Xia, Shen, and Verma ²⁰¹⁴). Sporocarps of C. cibarius contain active metabolites such as ergosterol, ergosterol peroxide, cerevisterol, β‐sitosterol, 7‐dehydrostigmasterol, tuberoside, glucoside, and cerebroside, which can inhibit NF‐κB activation by preventing it from moving from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. (Kim, Tay, and de Blanco ²⁰⁰⁸).

Macrophages are component of the innate immune system, carry out immunological surveillance and tumor defense. Tumor‐associated macrophages (TAMs) found in the tumor microenvironment and are segregated into two groups: M1 and M2 macrophages (Nielsen and Schmid 2017). Macrophages are one of the main target cells of some antitumor and immunomodulatory drugs. Tumor cell invasion, proliferation, and metastasis are associated with TAMs with M2‐like phenotype. As a result, they might be a suitable target for an efficient cancer immunotherapy. A new polysaccharide WCCP‐N‐b (linear α‐1,6‐galactan) has been purified from C. cibarius by Yang et al. (2019) and has the ability to switch M2‐like macrophages (tumor‐promoting) to tumor‐inhibiting M1‐like phenotype (Meng et al. 2019). This linear galactan has the ability to greatly boost phagocytosis by macrophages, NO secretion, and production of cytokines (TNF‐ α, IL‐6, and IL‐1) and also activates different signaling pathways (NF‐κB and MAPKs).

Numerous edible mushrooms have phytochemicals that are known to have antitumor properties. The viability of cancer cells in four cancer cell lines (U87 glioblastoma, A172 glioblastoma, PAN‐C1 pancreatic, and CH157‐MN meningioma) and one NIH3T3 fibroblast were dramatically reduced by high doses (1000 and 2000 μg/mL) of C. cibarius extracts (Chin et al. 2018). Such reduction in cancer cells could be credited to the occurrence of β‐glucans and phenolic compounds (Kolundzic et al. 2017), which exhibited antioxidative (Wang et al. 2014), as well as antiangiogenic activities (Kao et al. 2013). Han et al. (2013) isolated a protein‐bound polysaccharide fraction (JBP‐1), that is, water‐soluble and protein‐bound glucan from the sporocarps of C. cibarius. JBP‐1 possesses immunomodulatory potential when lymphocytes were selected to evaluate the immunological activity. This polysaccharide functions as an immunocompetent adjuvant and could be further used for clinical applications, such as treatment for cancers.

Various chronic degenerative diseases, including cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and chronic inflammation are caused by genotoxins (Izquierdo‐Vega et al. ²⁰¹⁷). Aqueous extract of C. cibarius showed antigenotoxic potential against damage induced by the alkylating carcinogenic agent (methyl methanesulfonate) in human mononuclear cells (hMNCs) (Méndez‐Espinoza et al. ²⁰¹³).

Small RNAs from C. cibarius (Figure 4) have proved strong antiproliferative activity against human's LS180 and HT‐29 colon cancer cell lines (Lemieszek et al. 2019), while nontoxic effect was observed for CCD841 CoTr human colon epithelial cells. This happens due to the elevated p53 expression and p21‐mediated p53‐dependent cell cycle arrest. Ethanolic extract (80%) of C. cibarius exhibits antiproliferative activity when applied at 0.1 mg mL⁻¹, and aqueous extract is weak immuno‐stimulatory at 1 mg mL⁻¹ (Deo et al. 2019).

FIGURE 4.

Function of sRNA isolated from C. cibarius in cell cycle arrest in cancer tissues (CDK: Cyclin‐dependent kinase; pRb: Phosphorylated retinoblastoma protein).

5.1.3. Insecticidal Activity

Insecticidal activity of isolated glycerol 1, 2, and 1, 3‐dilinoleates and glycerol tridehydrocrepenynate from C. cibarius was examined against Musca domestica and Blatta orientalis by Daniewski et al. (2012). Ethanolic extract fraction showed that insecticidal activity occurred mostly in the nonpolar compounds found in the ethyl acetate layer. Insecticidal activity of the further isolated ethyl acetate fraction was reported lowered than that of the crude extracts. This finding may indicate a synergistic interaction of the constituents of the chanterelle (C. cibarius). Cieniecka‐Rosłonkiewicz et al. (2007) revealed high insecticidal activities of protic ionic liquid extract of C. cibarius against both Musca domestica and Blatta orientalis.

5.1.4. AntiHelminth Activity

Extract of C. cibarius is also used as an anthelmintic agent (Panchak et al. 2020). Fascioliasis originally affects livestock, but it is now known to affect humans. Ethanolic extract of C. cibarius has ovicidal and miracicidal activities against Fasciola spp. (Nwofor et al. 2018). Opisthorchiasis is a dangerous disease caused by Opisthorchis felineus (trematode) of the family Opisthorchiidae, which is common in Western Europe and Russia. There are a lot of complications associated with this disease and relatively have few effective treatments. Methanolic extract of C. cibarius dramatically reduced the population of O. felineus in mice bile ducts with increasing concentrations (10–1000 μg/mL) (Tsyganov et al. 2018), if applied on parasite larvae excyst.

5.1.5. Antioxidant Activity

Antioxidants have great importance in terms of combating oxidative stress that may cause numerous degenerative diseases (Helen et al. 2000). Phenolics are the principal compounds in mushrooms responsible for their antioxidant activity (Elmastas et al. 2007). Valentao et al. (2005) listed various phenolics and organic acids from C. cibarius. Antioxidant activity of these substances might serve as a defense against a variety of diseases (Mier et al. 1996). The potencies of phenolics to scavenge unstable molecules (free radicals), chelate metal ions, and inhibit lipoxygenase (LOX) enzyme may be responsible for their bioactivities (Decker 1997; Mallavadhani et al. ²⁰⁰⁶). Witkowska, Zujko, and Mirończuk‐Chodakowska (2011) explored most popular wild edible mushrooms including C. cibarius as rich sources of antioxidants such as total polyphenol contents. Polyphenol content in C. cibarius was found 270 mg/100 g in dry mass and 22 mg/100 g in fresh mass. DPPH radical scavenging ability was reported in EC₅₀ values as 13.86 mg extract/mL, and chelating ability of ferrous ions was valued EC₅₀ 8.02 mg extract/mL. In the methanolic extract of C. cibarius, Kozarski et al. (2015) reported phenols (49.8 mg g⁻¹) as the major antioxidant component followed by flavonoids (42.9 mg g⁻¹). Tekeli, Dogan, and Uslu (2008) determined antioxidant activity of C. cibarius extract, which showed a higher potency than butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) in scavenging of DPPH free radical.

The carotenoid pigments have antioxidant properties which have been an accountable factor for positive effects on human health (Rao and Rao 2007). Particularly β‐carotene has shown promising results in laboratory assays and observed inverse association with cancer threat in epidemiologic studies (Barros et al. 2008). A peculiar biomolecule, that is, ergothioneine, is present in C. cibarius and has been regarded as a crucial biological antioxidant because of the way it cooperates with other antioxidants to prevent oxidative stress in mitochondria. Additionally, this amino acid enhances deactivation of singlet oxygen (Akanmu et al. 1991) and acts as a protective shield against oxidative damage of water‐soluble proteins (Paul and Snyder 2010).

The mushroom C. cibarius have the power of inhibition of lipid peroxidation reaction at 49.74 nM, which emphasizes its antioxidant potential (Egwim, Elem, and Egwuche ²⁰¹¹). Many studies have reported that the presence of flavonoids might be responsible for their antioxidant properties (Harborne and Williams 2000) and may be because of its antilipid peroxidation activity in some of the studied mushrooms. Based on linoleic acid autoxidation, maximum inhibition (74%) was reported for C. cibarius by Palacios et al. (2011). Higher flavonoids (40.01 mg QE g⁻¹ of extract) and phenol content (40.97 mg GAE g⁻¹ of extract) in n‐butanol fraction were observed in C. cibarius by Ebrahimzadeh, Safdari, and Khalili (2015). They also observed highest nitric oxide (NO) scavenging activity; higher DPPH scavenging activity (33.43%) in ethyl acetate fraction; high reducing potential in aqueous fraction; and highest Fe²⁺ chelating activity (86.13) in the chloroform fraction. In addition, C. cibarius fractions (CC2a, CC3) have shown antioxidant activity (Lemieszek et al. 2018).

5.1.6. Anti‐Inflammatory and Wound‐Healing Activity

The application of C. cibarius in wound treatment might be owing to its potent anti‐inflammatory and wound‐healing actions (Nasiry, Khalatbary, and Ebrahimzadeh ²⁰¹⁷). Numerous neurodegenerative pathways have been intimately correlated with inflammatory mechanisms (Chen, Zhang, and Huang ²⁰¹⁶). The anti‐inflammatory phytochemicals of C. cibarius may be utilized effectively in neuroprotection. Neuroprotective potential of polysaccharide fractions of C. cibarius was examined under different neurodegeneration models, including excitotoxicity, trophic, and oxidative stresses. The research revealed positive effects of C. cibarius fractions on neuron viability and neurite development under both stress and normal conditions. These both types of fractions (CC2a and CC3) efficiently counteract the detrimental effects induced by glutamatergic system activators (Lemieszek et al. 2018). Methanolic extract of C. cibarius exhibits anti‐inflammatory activity revealed by using RAW 264.7 macrophages (Moro et al. 2012). In response to LPS stimulation, the extracts induced suppression of nitric oxide (NO) and upregulate mRNA expression of iNOS and cytokines (IL‐1b and IL6). Palacios et al. (2011) detected pyrogallol in the extracts of Agaricus bisporus, C. cibarus, C. cornucopioides, and Lactarius deliciosus and suggested that it might have some anti‐inflammatory activities.

The peroxisome proliferator–activated receptors (PPARs) are members of nuclear receptor proteins that play vital role in the regulation of energy metabolism (Christofides et al. 2021), proliferation, differentiation, inflammation (Clarke et al. 1999; Clark ²⁰⁰²; Peters, Shah, and Gonzalez ²⁰¹²), and tumorigenesis (Belfiore, Genua, and Malaguarnera ²⁰⁰⁹). A new acetylenic acid analogue (10E,14Z)‐9‐oxooctadeca‐10,14‐dien‐12‐ynoic acid was isolated from C. cibarius, which can selectively activate PPAR‐γ (Hong et al. 2012). These nuclear receptors play crucial role in development of adipocytes, regulation of inflammatory processes, in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism (Muszyńska, Sułkowska‐Ziaja, and Ekiert ²⁰¹¹).

6. Culinary Delicacy

Mushrooms have been a key part of the human diet since the prehistoric era. Mushrooms were even regarded as “Food of the Gods” by the Romans (Chatterjee, Halder, and Das ²⁰²¹). It was believed by the Greek, that mushrooms provide strength during the battle and were considered as a health food or “Elixir of Life,” according to Chinese (Valverde, Hernández‐Pérez, and Paredes‐López ²⁰¹⁵). Chanterelles commonly live in symbiotic association with trees of pine, spruce, hornbeam, and oak. They generally grow from the month of June to October. They are well regarded as a preferred delicacy in America, Africa, and Asia and in several European countries (Bulam, Ustun, and Peksen ²⁰²¹). Wild C. cibarius mushroom has been found to have medicinal and health benefits, which may be another factor in its use as traditional delicacy (Kozarski et al. 2015). Through conventional culinary techniques (frying, cooking, and marination), the juvenile sporocarps can be consumed and preserved by drying, freezing, and other methods (Muszyńska et al. 2016; Sumic et al. ²⁰¹⁶; Thu et al. ²⁰²⁰). Chantarelles are being served with chicken or fish dishes and widely used in omelettes, risotto recipes, delicious soups, and sauces as well (Kozarski et al. 2015). C. cibarius has apricot‐like, cooked carrot aromatic odor which is due to the presence of fatty aldehyde (octanal and (E)‐2‐octenal), ketone (3‐octanone), and alcoholic compounds ((E)‐2‐ octen‐1‐ol) (Aisala et al. 2019). C. cibarius contain taste modifier octadecadien‐12‐ynoic acids responsible for kokumi taste and several C18‐acetylenic acids (Mittermeier, Dunkel, and Hofmann ²⁰¹⁸). Fons et al. (2003) identified various volatiles compounds in five Chanterelles including C. cibarius, and the major constituent was C₈ derivatives, that is, 88.6%. These volatile components are widely reported for their various mushrooms like odors like, benzaldehyde (almond odor), benzyl alcohol (sweet‐spicy odor) as well as (E)‐1, 3‐Octadiene along with 2, 4‐decadienal responsible for apricot and plum flavors respectively. Politowicz et al. (2017) analyzed fresh and dried sporocarps of C. cibarius and reported 39 volatile compounds. There were three most prevalent compounds in fresh chanterelle, that is, 1‐ octen‐3‐ol, 1‐hexanol, and 2‐octen‐1‐ol, which were responsible for their peculiar aroma.

In Europe, after Penny Buns (Boletus edulis), golden chanterelle (C. cibarius) is the second most collected wild edible mushrooms as 1,88,000 t with 1 billion Euros worth per year (Lovrić et al. 2020; Lovrić et al. ²⁰²¹). From prehistoric times to the present, edible wild mushrooms (EWM) have been highly coveted and demanded as important sources of daily food, traditional medicines, and commercial profit (Azeem, Hakeem, and Ali ²⁰²⁰). In several countries, EWM recognized as sustainable “meat of poverty” or “forest meat,” which is not originated from animal source (Dimitrijevic et al. 2018). The meaty taste in mushrooms is due to the presence of 5′‐nucleotides, particularly 5’‐GMP and C. cibarius also contains all of them with varied concentrations (Muszyńska et al. 2016). The consumption of the chanterelle alone is estimated to be between 150, 000 and 200, 000 metric tonnes per year worldwide (Kumari, Reddy, and Upadhyay ²⁰¹¹).

7. Commercial Harvest of Cantharellus

Wild mushrooms have been grouped under the category of nontimber forest products (NTFPs), through which food and income resources can be generated (Boa 2004; De‐Roman and Boa ²⁰⁰⁶; Devkota ²⁰⁰⁸; Liu et al. ²⁰¹⁸). In 2017, around 10.2 million tonnes of mushrooms and truffles were produced globally; where Asia accounted for 80.5% between 2013 and 2017; Europe contributed 13.2%; Africa as 0.3%; America as 5.5%; and Oceania contributed 0.5% (FAO STAT ²⁰¹⁹). In Europe and North America, chanterelles are particularly regarded for their culinary value. They are among the most widely consumed edible wild mushrooms due to their graceful stature, delicate flavor, and fruity aroma (Arora 1990). Chanterelles are nutritious, having about 10% proteins by weight (Pilz et al. 2003), contain higher content of vitamin A, as well as the richest source of vitamin D found in nature.

The annual global production of chanterelles is estimated by Watling (1997), to be 1.67 billion USD, and the global trade of chanterelle is expanding. The estimated world's chanterelle trade to be around 2, 00, 000 metric tonnes, accounting for annual worth of approximately $1.25 to $1.4 billion (Hall et al. 1998; Hall and Yun ²⁰⁰⁰). Although prices paid to harvesters fluctuate daily and seasonally in the Pacific Northwest. The annual average prices were reported consistent by Blatner and Alexander (1998), which were $2.95/pound in 1992, $4.00 in 1994, $3.02 in 1995, and in 1996 it was $3.06/pound. Rowe (1997) reported the price per pound in 1992 ranged from $ 1.25 to $ 8.00 over the course of a season, with an average of $2.00.

European countries like Turkey, Bulgaria, and Serbia are at the top in the production of C. cibarius mushroom (Sumic et al. 2016). Since 1970s, Cantharellus californicus has been gathered for commercial purposes. For a very long time, harvesters have recognized it as a unique species and refer to it as the “mud chanterelle.” Many chefs outside of California show least interest in C. californicus than other chanterelles because of its large size, high fibrous, and nonaromatic nature. During commercial harvesting, harvesters in California and Pacific Northwest typically receive 1 to 5 USD per pound (2 to 11 kg⁻¹) for C. formosus as compared to USD 4 to 10 pound⁻¹ (9 to 22 kg⁻¹), or higher price could be obtained for mud chanterelle if selling directly to markets and restaurants (Arora and Dunham 2008). According to an estimate, between 1,50,000 and 2,00,000 t of wild chanterelles are produced per annum, with market price of over $1.7 billion (Mitchell and Hobby 2010).

Europe is the main market for wild edible mushrooms, with France and Germany having the highest demand. In 1992, harvesters from Idaho, Oregon, and Washington were paid in total USD 20,267,080 for 3,935,254 pounds of wild edible mushrooms, where harvesters were paid USD 3,664,261 for 1,135,175 pounds of chanterelle (Schlosser and Blatner 1994). In British Columbia, the total quantity of chanterelles harvested varies from 187,500 kg in bad season to 750,000 kg in good season (Wills and Lipsey 1999). The largest production region in British Columbia is Haida Gwaii. Approximately 11,500 kg of total production is estimated to be produced there in a good year, with the net worth of pickers ranging from CAD $ 2,25,000 to $ 350,000 based on a price range of $5.50 to $9.25 kg⁻¹ (Tedder, Mitchell, and Farran ²⁰⁰⁰). According to a study by Ehlers and Hobby (2010), in northern Vancouver's Island, pickers receive prices CAD$ 2.20 to $16.50 kg⁻¹ for fresh chanterelles. However, commercial pickers claimed to harvest 4.6–27.3 kg per day with expected daily earning of $22.50 to $135.00, whereas some pickers claimed the collection of 45 kg per day, which at the best price bring the earnings of $ 750. The wild mushroom industry as a whole is governed by the level of variation in harvest amounts and prices paid.

8. Cultivation Practices

Mushroom cultivation could be an alternative strategy for the conservation of certain important and endangered plant species, wherein dependence on wild resources can be reduced for nutraceuticals and phyto‐chemicals for drug preparation. Over the past ten years, the production of mushrooms and truffles has climbed from 6.90 to 10.24 million metric tonnes (Ho, Zulkifli, and Tan ²⁰²⁰). In next few years, the annual value of the worldwide mushroom market anticipated to be surpassing US 50 billion dollars. An approximate 0.13 million mushrooms were produced in India between 2010 and 2017, representing an average and annual increase of 4.3% growth rate (Raman et al. 2018). It is predicted that by 2023, the value of the edible mushroom industry might reach USD 62.19 billion (Research and Markets 2021). Although there are other types of mushrooms, including mycorrhizal, saprophytic, and parasitic types, but usually saprophytic are selected for artificial cultivation (Stamets 2000). Around the world, 200 different types of mushrooms are consumed as superfoods (Kalac 2013), and only three edible mushroom species—Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Volvariella volvacea—are generally grown, out of the 33 species that are currently being cultivated worldwide (Erbiai et al. 2021). More than 30‐fold production of cultivated edible mushrooms has been achieved, and per capita consumption has increased 4.7‐fold globally since 1978 (Royse, Baars, and Tan ²⁰¹⁷; Beelman, Kalaras, and Richie ²⁰¹⁹).

The first functional committee for mushroom cultivation was established in 1894 at the “Mushroom capital of the world,” that is, Pennsylvania (Beyer 2003). Mushroom requires special conditions for their growth and production, like low temperature, consistent humidity, light exposure, good aeration, and appropriate substrate composition (Wani, Bodha, and Wani ²⁰¹²; Hou et al. ²⁰¹⁷). The first success in commercially production of mushroom was achieved by a Frenchman in 1978, who cultured Agaricus bisporus underground in quarries nearby Paris (Niazi and Ghafoor 2021).

In 1996, for the first time, Danell achieved sporocarp production of C. cibarius under greenhouse condition. Commercial production of chanterelles in the glasshouse condition is quite difficult, but seedlings inoculated with selected mycelia may allow commercial production. Danell planted inoculated chanterelle ectomycorrhizal seedlings into pots in a greenhouse. After several months, when seedlings acquired 16 months of age and height of 0.5 m, he reported abundant chanterelle ectomycorrhizae and fruiting bodies from the drainage holes of the pots (Danell and Camacho 1997).

There are orchards for the production of black truffles (Giovannetti et al. 1994; Chevalier and Frochot ¹⁹⁹⁷). A chanterelle orchard of 225 m² can be established by planting 100 seedlings in a square at a distance of 1.5 m from each other. In Scottish forests, Slee (1991) reported a production of 50 kg C. cibarius ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, while in southern Sweden, an irrigated field plot (15 × 35 m) yielded a total of 17 kg FW of C. cibarius in 1992 (Danell ^1994a). In 1994, Danell developed a rapid technique for the large‐scale production of chanterelles. His technique was totally based on methods of McLaughlin (1970) and Jentschke, Godbold, and Hütterman (1991). He inoculated the seedlings of Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies with C. cibarius hyphal suspension and achieved ECM formation in 8 weeks. Several sporocarps and primordia of C. cibarius were observed with 16‐month‐old Pinus sylvestris seedlings in pots.

9. Preservation and Processing Methods

Shelf life and postharvest quality of edible mushrooms could be improved by developing durable techniques whether for short‐ or long‐term preservation. There are several such preservation techniques that are lately being used include, physical, chemical, and thermal methods (Bulam, Ustun, and Peksen ²⁰²¹). The edible mushrooms can get altered chemically during preservation and thus adversely affect their nutritional contents, organoleptic and bioactive qualities, and commercial importance (Xue et al. 2017; Thakur ²⁰¹⁸; Marcal et al. ²⁰²¹). The chanterelles, preserved in vinegar and olive oil, were observed to have a significant decrease in the quantity and quality of the bioactive compounds like phenolics and organic acids (Valentao et al. 2005). Additionally, it is to be remembering that deep‐freezing is a common practice for enhancing storage stability and enables year‐round mushroom consumption without seasonal constraints (Manzi et al. 2004).

Postharvest processing techniques are little explored for chanterelle mushrooms. The consumption of fruiting bodies of C. cibarius is safe and it can be taken as fresh, dried, frozen or in pickled forms. As compared to fresh, frozen, or canned mushrooms, the shelf life of dried mushrooms is much longer. To preserve the quality of the raw material, drying can be done using the vacuum drying process at lower temperatures and low oxygen level. Vacuum‐drying is an excellent method for materials that can alter or be damaged by the impact of high temperatures. The vacuum pressure of 10 kPa and 50°C temperature is ideal for reducing water activity, maximizing the total phenolic content and the ability of vacuum‐dried chanterelle mushrooms to rehydrate (Sumic et al. 2013, 2016).

Blanching assists in food preservation techniques by reducing the numbers of contaminating microorganisms on their surfaces (Fellows 2017). Blanching of fresh sliced C. cibarius using gently boiling potable water/distilled water or with mineral/deionized water for 5–15 min caused 15% leaching of mercury (Hg), while 35% for sliced and deep‐freezed fruiting bodies. Total leaching rate (i.e., 15 to 37%) of Hg was reported for fresh pickled C. cibarius and it was between 37% and 39% when deep‐frozen fruiting bodies were processed (Falandysz and Drewnowska 2017). Similarly, blanching fresh chanterelles reduces the amount of cadmium by 11%–36%, whereas approx. 40% for deep‐freezed mushrooms. Blanching the double picked chanterelles resulted in extra loss of Cd (37%–71%). When chanterelle sporocarps were blanched and then further pickled, the overall Cd leaching rate was between 77% and 91%. The blanching and pickling greatly reduce the amount of Cd in C. cibarius (Drewnowska et al. 2017).

In C. cibarius samples, convective predrying and vacuum microwave finish drying (CPD‐VMFD) at 70°C led to an increased content (136 g 100 g⁻¹ DW) of volatile chemicals, but neither essential amino acids nor nonessential amino acids were observed to be altered (Politowicz et al. 2017). However, drying of mushroom slices (5–7 mm) in a tunnel dryer at 70°C for 4–5 h resulted in lower content of vitamin C and total anthocyanins, which might be due to the destruction by drying (Salihovic et al. 2021). In addition, the methods like lyophilization (at −40°C) and sun‐drying (25 ± 2°C) are more advantageous in increasing the quantities of bio‐elements (Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mg) in edible mushrooms than drying in a dryer (Kala et al. 2021).

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) method considerably reduces decay and weight loss of C. cibarius (Ozturk, Havsut, and Yıldız ²⁰²¹). As storage period passage, the significant increase was reported in total phenolics, proteins, vitamin C, ash, and dry matter as well as in antioxidant activity. Preservation and processing of mushrooms with certain bacteria is also a unique method for maintaining quality and long‐term storage. Jabłonska‐Rys et al. (2016) performed lactic acid fermentation of C. cibarius with Lactobacillus plantarum strain and reported that this bacterium can effectively lower pH and enhance gallic and ferulic acids contents in fermented mushrooms.

Thermal processing also increased the release of bioelements like zinc (Muszyńska et al. 2016), Mg, Zn, Fe, and Cu from C. cibarius into artificial digestive juices (Kala et al. 2017, 2019, 2021).

10. Conclusion and Future Prospects

The review emphasizes the significance of C. cibarius as nutritional, nutraceutical and medicinal benefits on the health of consumers. In this review, conventional as well as novel preservation and processing techniques are discussed along with cultivation techniques. As we know, mushrooms have opened an outdoor in our daily diet schedule because of high nutritional, nutraceutical, and medicinal values. In addition, mushrooms have been regarded as nutraceutical foods that are effective in preventing diseases like cancer and other severe life‐threatening disorders like neurodegeneration, hypertension, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia. Future study should be concentrated on the discovery of new effective drugs for the well‐being of mankind. There should be a technique for recovering some essential compounds from waste generated during production and processing which could be valorized by both food and pharmaceutical industries. Finally, the mechanisms of action of bioactive compounds found in mushrooms should be studied at cellular level.

Author Contributions

Ajay Kumar: conceptualization (equal), visualization (lead), writing – original draft (equal), writing – review and editing (equal). Reema Devi: formal analysis (equal). Rajni Dhalaria: data curation (equal), writing – review and editing (equal). Ashwani Tapwal: data curation (equal), writing – review and editing (equal). Rachna Verma: data curation (equal), writing – review and editing (equal). Summya Rashid: data curation (equal), writing – review and editing (supporting). Gehan M. Elossaily: data curation (equal), writing – review and editing (supporting). Khalid Ali Khan: data curation (equal), writing – review and editing (supporting). Kow‐Tong Chen: data curation (supporting), writing – review and editing (equal). Tarun Verma: data curation (equal), supervision (equal), writing – review and editing (equal).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Data Availability Statement

The data generated or analyzed that support the findings of this study are available and included in this published article.