Figure 2.

Soil as a source of ARG and antimicrobial resistance

Soil represents a natural source of antimicrobial resistance, as antibiotics are an important component of chemical warfare between microbes. At the micro-scale, the soil microbiomes are found in micro-aggregates,⁹⁵ forming biofilms that protect against predation, desiccation, and antibiotic exposure while improving nutrient and oxygen availability and providing a niche for HGT.⁹⁶ At the macro scale, the soil microbiomes are subjected to various selective pressures, such as climate change, pollutants, agriculture, and the introduction of contaminated water.