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. 2023 Nov 21;2(6):lnad046. doi: 10.1093/lifemedi/lnad046

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© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Higher Education Press.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Figure 4. — Illustration of common technical limitations in 3D bioprinting.(A) Extrusion profile of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). (B) Schematic of the layer-by-layer construction of 3D printed part. (C) The effect of part orientation on the strength of the printed parts. (D) Stepping effect of the curved surface with large curvatures. (E) Force distribution between layers of planar and non-planar surfaces. F_A: attacking force; F_T: tensile component of F_A; F_S: shearing component of F_A. (F) The penetration issue during printing, where the nozzle pierces the printing path. (G) Illustration of support structures. (H) The triangle shows the maximum support angle θ, the layer height h, the maximum overhang distance d, and the area that needs support.