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. 2025 Jan 20;31(1):96–104. doi: 10.1038/s41591-024-03341-8

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — a, Mapping finger position to quadcopter velocities. The thumb position is mapped to forward (Fw), backward (Bk), left (Lt) and right (Rt) translation velocity. The index–middle finger group position is mapped to velocities directed up and down in elevation. The position of the ring–little finger group is mapped to right rotation (Rt rot) and left rotation (Lt rot) velocities. b, Top, the layout for quadcopter control showing the virtual quadcopter in the center of the screen. A visualization of the hand indicating the neutral points for the finger groups and cardinal directions of the thumb is also visible. The rings are seen in the center of the display, and the green straight line indicates the trajectory the quadcopter is to follow along the obstacle course. Bottom, the quadcopter obstacle course demonstrates the four-DOF control required to complete the 4.5-lap obstacle course. The top-left path requires the quadcopter to move forward, turn around and move forward through the same rings to return to the starting point (one lap). The top-right path requires the participant to simultaneously move forward and turn to complete two ‘figure-8’ paths around the rings and back to the starting point (one lap). The bottom-left path requires him to move left through both rings, stop and then move right back through the rings (one lap). The bottom-right path requires moving forward through the rings, increasing the elevation, moving backward over top of the rings, decreasing elevation and then moving forward through both rings to the ending point (1.5 laps). c, Top, an exemplary full-flight path during a block of the obstacle course. Bottom, the flight path is separated into laps corresponding to the planned flight path for each lap in b (bottom).