Table 2.
Summary of studies assessing ceramide levels in patients with neurological diseases
| Disease | Participants | Ceramide | Type of sample | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| AD | Human: AD group (n = 7), control group (n = 7); mice: 3, 6, 25 months (n = 5) male C57BL/6 mice | C24:0 ceramides increased | Human and mouse brain tissue | (93) |
| AD | CDR 0 (n = 5), CDR 0.5 (n = 3), CDR (n = 4), CDR (n = 6), and CDR (n = 4) white matter and gray matter samples in the brain and cerebellum of participants | AD white matter of the brain and cerebellum: C18:0 and C24:1 ceramides increased | Human brain tissue | (84) |
| AD | Patients with AD (n = 19), AD with other neuropathological lesions (n = 6), and non-AD dementia (n = 9). Control group (n = 6) | C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, and C24:0 ceramides increased | Human brain tissue | (94) |
| AD | Patients with AD (n = 120) | The ratio of SM/ceramide can predict clinical progression | Human plasma | (95) |
| AD | Participants without dementia (n = 72), with any dementia type (n = 27), and with AD (n = 18) | C16:0 and C24:0 ceramides increased | Human serum | (96) |
| AD | AD (n = 91), MCI (n = 92), and control (n = 26) participants | Ceramide (d38:4) increased | Human cerebrospinal fluid | (85) |
| MCI | MCI (n = 197) and control (n = 200) participants | The association of plasma C18:0 and C24:1 ceramide levels with MCI was regulated by sex but not by age, with higher MCI levels in males. No association was found in women | Human plasma | (97) |
| AD | AD (n = 20) and control (n = 20) participants | C24:1 ceramide increased | Human plasma | (86) |
| AD | Participants included men (n = 626) and women (n = 366) | In men, C16:0, C18:0, C22:0, C24:0, and C24:1 ceramides are associated with an increased risk of AD. In women, there was no association between ceramide and AD risk | Human plasma | (98) |
| AD | Preclinical AD (n = 12), patients with MCI due to AD (MCI-AD, n = 31), and healthy controls (n = 20) | Preclinical AD vs. healthy controls: ceramides increased | Human plasma | (87) |
| PD | Cognitively normal PD patients (n = 26), PD patients with cognitive impairment or dementia (n = 26), and cognitively normal non-PD controls (n = 5) | Among PD patients, levels of C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, and C24:1 ceramide increased | Human plasma | (99) |
| PDD | PDD (n = 38), PD-NC (n = 40), and normal controls (n = 40) | C14:0 and C24:1 levels were significantly higher in PDD than in PD-NC and normal controls | Human plasma | (100) |
| PD | PD (n = 9) and controls (n = 10). Take the ACC and occipital cortex of the brain | PD ACC: overall gray matter ceramide decline; C16:0, C18:0, and C18:0 ceramides decline; C23:0 and C24:1 ceramides increased The gene expression of CERS1 was upregulated |
Human brain tissue | (101) |
| PD | PD (n = 36) and healthy controls (n = 36) | C16:0 ceramide increased | Human plasma | (90) |
| PD | PD (n = 50) and healthy controls (n = 45) | Ceramide (d40:0), Ceramide (d42:0) decreased | Human serum | (102) |
| PD | Control group (n = 63 serum and n = 20 control group) (n = 63 serum and n = 20 CSF), LRRK2 G2019S carriers without PD (n = 56 serum and n = 20 CSF), LRRK2 G2019S carriers diagnosed with PD (n = 65 serum and n = 19 CSF), and PD patients without known LRRK2 mutations (n = 37 serum and n = 29 CSF) | Serum of PD patients: ceramide (d18:1/24:0), ceramide (d18:2/24:0) decline, C16:0 ceramide increased LRRK2 G2019S carriers of CSF: ceramide (d32:1) decreased |
Human serum and cerebrospinal fluid | (91) |
| Depression | The Erasmus Rucphen Family study (n = 901) | C20:0 and C22:0 ceramides were associated with the onset of depression | Human plasma | (103) |
| Depression | Recent-Depression (n = 5 NC and n = 10 AD), Past-Depression (4 NC and 4 AD), and No-Depression (16 NC and 7 AD) | Recent-Depression:C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C24:1, and C26:1 ceramides increased | Human plasma | (104) |
| Depression, BD | Depression (n = 174), BD (n = 67) | C24:1 ceramide was the most important differential biomarker between BD and depression | Human dried blood spot | (105) |
BD, bipolar disorder; CDR, clinical dementia rating; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; LRRK2, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2; MCI, mild cognitive impairment; NC, no cognitive impairment; PD-NC, PD with no cognitive impairment; PDD, Parkinson's disease dementia.