Table 3.
Results from Multilevel Model Examining Historical Changes in Loneliness Within- and Between-Nations.
| Loneliness | ||
|---|---|---|
| Parameters | Estimate | SE |
| Fixed Effects | ||
| Intercept | 55.05** | 0.29 |
| Time | 0.28** | 0.07 |
| Time squared | −0.01** | 0.003 |
| Age | −0.003 | 0.05 |
| Age*time | −0.10** | 0.02 |
| Birth year | 0.08 | 0.03 |
| Birth year squared | −0.03** | 0.004 |
| Birth year*time | −0.07** | 0.01 |
| Birth year squared*time | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Birth year*age | −0.02** | 0.004 |
| Birth year squared*age | 0.001 | 0.0002 |
| Birth year*age*time | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Birth year squared*age*time | −0.0002 | 0.0001 |
| England | −3.43** | 0.39 |
| Continental Europe | −6.94** | 0.33 |
| Mediterranean Europe | −9.13** | 0.38 |
| Nordic Europe | −7.08** | 0.41 |
| England*time | −0.20 | 0.11 |
| Continental Europe*time | −0.20 | 0.09 |
| Mediterranean Europe*time | 0.21 | 0.11 |
| Nordic Europe*time | −0.22 | 0.12 |
| England*age | 0.19 | 0.08 |
| Continental Europe*age | 0.16 | 0.07 |
| Mediterranean Europe*age | 0.88** | 0.07 |
| Nordic Europe*age | −0.24 | 0.08 |
| England*time*age | 0.06 | 0.02 |
| Continental Europe*time*age | 0.10** | 0.02 |
| Mediterranean Europe*time*age | −0.02 | 0.02 |
| Nordic Europe*time*age | 0.09* | 0.02 |
| England*birth year | −0.11 | 0.05 |
| Continental Europe*birth year | 0.16 | 0.05 |
| Mediterranean Europe*birth year | 0.78** | 0.06 |
| Nordic Europe*birth year | −0.22 | 0.07 |
| England*birth year squared | 0.03** | 0.005 |
| England*time*birth year | 0.08** | 0.02 |
| Continental Europe*time*birth year | 0.07** | 0.02 |
| Mediterranean Europe*time*birth year | −0.06 | 0.02 |
| Nordic Europe*time*birth year | 0.06 | 0.02 |
| England*age*birth year | 0.05** | 0.01 |
| England*time*age*birth year | −0.003 | 0.002 |
| Random Effects | ||
| Intercept | 56.55** | 0.54 |
| Time | 0.37** | 0.02 |
| Time squared | 0.01** | 0.001 |
| Residual Variance | 37.53** | 0.27 |
Note. N = 59,030 individuals and 125,954 observations. Loneliness is in a T-score metric (M = 50, SD = 10). The model was centered at birth year 1960 and age 50 and the US is the reference group.
US: N = 13,217 and 23,714 observations.
England: N = 9,793 and 29,070 observations.
Continental Europe: N = 18,283 and 38,864 observations.
Mediterranean Europe: N = 9,908 and 18,920 observations.
Nordic Europe: N = 7,829 and 15,386 observations.
*
p < .001.
**
p < .0001.