Table 3.
Summarised anti-atherosclerotic and hypolipidemic effects of terrestrial and marine plant extracts included in the review through PPARs, LXRs, PCSK9, and inflammatory markers modulation.
| Terrestrial and marine plant extracts | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Extract | Main natural compounds | Biological activity | References |
| Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck | Anthocyanins, flavonoids (naringenin, hesperetin), phenolic acids | Reduction of body fat and augmented lipolysis in vivo. | [[116], [117], [118], [119]] |
| Increase in AMPK and activation of PPARγ in isolated mitochondria. | |||
| Prevention of steatosis by decrease of LXRs, SREBP-1c, SREBP-1a in diabetic male rats. | |||
| Activation of PPARα and δ in HFD-fed mice. | |||
| Reduction of TNF-α and IL-6 in macrophages. | |||
| Bergamot (Citrus bergamia (Risso) Risso & Poit)) | Polyphenols, flavonoids (neoeriocitrin, naringin, melitidin), essential oils | PPARα-mediated hypolipidemic effects in rats. | [[120], [121], [122], [123], [124]] |
| Downregulation of PCSK9 with increase in LDLR expression and LDL-C clearance in HFD rats. | |||
| Reduction of HNF-1α and PCSK9 in HepG2 cells | |||
| Decrease in CRP secretion in overweight adults. | |||
| Morus alba L. (Moraceae) | Organic acids, alkaloids, isoquercetrin, quercetin-3-trigluco-side, moracetin, rutin, cudraflavone B, prenylflavore, tannic acid, phosphorous, calcium, iron, β-carotene, coumarins, vitamin C, amino acids, dihydroxycoumarin, oxyresveratrol, protein, zinc and magnesium | Downregulation of PCSK9 expression, increase in LDLR and LDL-C uptake in liver cell model. | [125,126,127] |
| Inhibition of PPARγ improving insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism in diabetic rats. | |||
| Reduction of inflammatory markers (MCP-1, mTOR, NF-kB) in rats. | |||
| Reduction of CRP and MDA and increase of HDL-C in humans. | |||
|
Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Spreng. (Thymelaeaceae) |
Flavonoids, triterpenoids, phenolic acids | Inhibition of atherosclerosis progression in HFD-fed diet ApoE−/− mice. | [114,128,129] |
| Reduction of TG, LDL-C and increase in HDL-C reducing CVD risk in vivo. | |||
| Activation of PPARs leading to fatty acid catabolism and elimination in differentiated myoblast cells. | |||
| Possible anti-inflammatory action via LXRs activation in differentiated myoblast cells. | |||
| Magnolia L. (Magnolia officinalis) | Lignans (honokiol, obovatolins-A and B, magnolol) | Modulation of LXRs, promotion of cholesterol efflux via ABCA1 in macrophages. | [69,130,131] |
| Downregulation of PCSK9 in hepatocytes model. | |||
| Anti-inflammatory activity by decreasing IL-1β, COX-2 and iNOS in rats. | |||
| Garcinia L. (Clusiaceae) | Hydroxycitric acid (HCA), Flavonoids (Garcinia biflavonoid 1 (GB1)) | Reduction of TC, TG and increase in HDL-C through ATP-citrate lyase inhibition in vitro and in humans. | [[132], [133], [134], [135]] |
| Upregulation of PPARα expression in HepG2 cells. | |||
| Anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. | |||
| Inhibition of NF-kB and JAK/STAT pathway in LPS-stimulated in macrophages. | |||
| Reduction of MPO activity, COX-2 and iNOS expression and IL-1β levels in vivo. | |||
| Brown algae (Phaeophyceae) | Polysaccharides (alginate, fucoidan), proteins (phycobiliproteins), polyphenols (phlorotannins), carotenoids (fucoxanthin), phytosterols (fucosterol, 24S-saringosterol), n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid) | Improvement of atherosclerosis through regulation of autophagy-mediated macrophage polarization in LDLR−/− HFD mice. | [115,[136], [137], [138], [139]] |
| Reduction of acid synthase, diacylglycerol acyltransferase, SREBP-1, perilipin-2 in NAFLD and NASH rats. | |||
| Activation of LXRs in a mouse model of AD. | |||
| Modulation of PPARα/γ in 3T3-L1 cells. | |||
| Anti-inflammatory properties and enhancement of cholesterol efflux in THP-I cells. | |||
Abbreviations: ABCA1, ATP-binding cassette transporter genes A1; AD, Alzheimer's disease; AMPK, Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; ApoE, apoliprotein E; COX-2, Cyclooxygenase-2 CRP, C-reactive protein; CVDs, cardiovascular diseases; HFD, high fat diet; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HNF-1α, hepatocytes nuclear factor 1α; IL-1β, interleukin 1β; IL-6, interleukin 6; iNOS, nitric oxide synthases; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDLR, low-density lipoprotein receptor; LXR, liver X receptor; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; MDA, malondialdehyde; MPO, myeloperoxidase; mTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin; NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis; NF-kB, nuclear factor kappa B; PLA2, phospholipase A2; PCSK9, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor; SREBP, sterol regulatory element-binding protein; TNF-α, tumour necrosis factor-α.