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. 2025 Feb 3;90(2):e70021. doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.70021

Conjugated linoleic acid in cheese: A review of the factors affecting its presence

Maria Govari 1,✉, Patroklos Vareltzis 2
PMCID: PMC11789828  PMID: 39898990

Abstract

Several health benefits of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) have been documented. The present work is aimed to review data on the various factors affecting the CLA content in cheese of studies accomplished in the last decade and also indicating the factors that increase the CLA levels. The CLA content in cheese depends on CLA levels present in milk, since the lipids with the CLA are transferred from milk into the cheese. Feed types rich in α‐linolenic and linoleic acids such as pasture grass, plant oils, cereals rich in oil, or fish oils can affect the CLA level in milk. In contrast to findings of previous reviews made in previous decade, which stated that the CLA levels in cheese were stable during ripening time, the present review reveals that certain lactic acid bacteria, that is, probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, or Lacticaseibacillus casei, as well as Bifidobacterium lactis can increase the CLA levels in cheese by converting linoleic acid during ripening time. These bacteria starters increased the CLA levels by 1.19, 1.6, and 6.6 times as much as the control in Ovine model, Miniature, and Cheddar cheese, respectively. Lipid oxidation due to factors like fluorescent light or aerobic conditions can decrease the CLA levels during storage.

Keywords: cheese conjugated linoleic acid, cheese ripening, cheese storage, conjugated linoleic acid, lipid oxidation, milk conjugated linoleic acid

1. INTRODUCTION

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) are isomers of linoleic acid (cis‐9, cis‐12, octadeca‐9,12‐dienoic acid) found in ruminants’ products and cheese (Hur et al., 2017). There are several CLA isomers in dairy product (Ferlay et al., 2017). The cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA and trans‐10, cis‐12 CLA are the predominant isomers found in milk or cheese (Derakhshande‐Rishehri et al., 2015). However, the cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA isomer is found in higher amounts (almost 80%) than the rest CLA isomers in cheese (T. Wang & Lee, 2015).

CLA are produced in ruminants through either bacterial enzymatic activity on polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the rumen or by the endogenous enzymatic activity of Δ‐desaturase on C18:1 trans‐11 vaccenic acid in the tissues and mammary gland (Ferlay et al., 2017). Food items originating from ruminants have higher levels of CLA compared to those from monogastric animals. Additionally, plant products and fish may exhibit lower levels of CLA isomers (Badawy et al., 2023). According to many studies, CLA have beneficial health effects against cancer, atherosclerosis, diabetes, obesity, or cardiovascular malfunction and can enhance immune function (Badawy et al., 2023; Szczepanska et al., 2023). The majority of CLA anticancer properties studies was accomplished by in vitro tests, while the rest tests for CLA beneficial health effects were examined by in vivo tests (Figure 1) (Szczepanska et al., 2023; B. Yang et al., 2015). Dairy products including cheese are rich in many important nutritional components including CLA (Pourbaba et al., 2021; Torres‐Gonzalez & Rice Bradley, 2023). Increasing the CLA levels in cheese increases the therapeutic and nutritive properties (Hur et al., 2017; Slurink et al., 2023).

FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1

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Health benefits of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA).

According to European Food Safety Authority, the CLA mixtures at doses of 3–3.5 g/day are considered safe (EFSA, 2018). Toxicity of CLA after an extended feeding period has been evaluated and no adverse effect has been reported in the literature (Scimeca, 1998). However, several adverse effects have emerged, such as glucose homeostasis, insulin resistance, and hepatic toxicity (Badawy et al., 2023). These are not yet fully understood due to the limited availability of human studies and insufficient scientific information to determine whether these effects are linked to the CLA dosage or the duration of its administration. Therefore, recommendations for consumption of CLA fortified products should be made on personalized basis and labeling of cheese packages with CLA positive health effects should follow state legislation on food components labeling (EFSA, 2018).

The content of CLA in different cheese products is considerably variable (Szterk et al., 2022). Numerous factors contribute to its concentration in the lipid phase of cheese. Key determinant influencing the CLA content in cheese is the fat level of the milk used in its production. However, factors such as cheese type, cheese production methods, cheese ripening, or storage time can also influence the CLA presence in cheese (Govari et al., 2019).

Studies on the factors affecting the CLA levels in cheese have not been reviewed in recent years. After a thorough search in literature, we found that Hur et al. (2017) published an overview of CLA formation and accumulation in a wide range of animal products, while the most recent review article on CLA in cheeses was published back in 2014 by Abd El‐Salam and El‐Shibiny (2014). Since then, more than 140 research articles have been published exploring different aspects of the presence of CLA in cheese. In 2024, a recent publication is dealing with factors affecting the presence of CLA in dairy products by focusing on the presence of probiotic bacteria effect on CLA (Jang et al., 2024). In contrast to previous reviews, the present review concludes that the CLA can be increased during cheese ripening due to lactic acid bacteria (LAB) growth, and summarized data on various factors affecting the CLA presence in cheese are also presented.

Thus, the aim of the present work is to review the published data on the various factors affecting the presence of CLA in cheese of published studies in the last decade. The novelty in this work is that important factors affecting the increase in CLA levels are reviewed that is going to assist the dairy industry to improve and increase the CLA content in produced cheese.

2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE CLA LEVELS IN CHEESE

The CLA levels in cheese are dependent on factors such as milk, animal feeding, cheesemaking, ripening, cheese type, lipid oxidation, and storage time (Ferlay et al., 2017; Szterk et al., 2022) (Figure 2).

FIGURE 2.

FIGURE 2

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Factors affecting the conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) presence in cheese.

2.1. CLA in milk

The lipids of milk affect the CLA levels in cheese, since the lipids with the CLA are transferred from milk into the curd (Blaiotta et al., 2021; Buccioni et al., 2022). The CLA presence in milk is affected by several factors like type of feed, the season of the year, and the animal breed (Kholif & Olafadehan, 2022; Zou et al., 2024). Feed types rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and PUFA as well as α‐linolenic and linoleic acids such as pasture grass, plant oils, cereals rich in oil, or marine oils obtained from fish or algae can affect the CLA level in milk (Acosta Balcazar et al., 2022). Rumen fatty acids such as linoleic acid, α‐linolenic acid, γ‐linolenic acid, or vaccenic acid are absorbed and transferred by blood into mammary gland (Figure 3). The fatty acids of milk lipids are derived from those found in blood plasma or they are synthesized de novo in the mammary gland (Ferlay et al., 2017). There is an endogenous formation of CLA in the mammary gland of ruminants by the action of the enzyme Δ‐9 desaturase, which causes the desaturation of trans‐VA vaccenic acid to cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA (Figure 3) (Hur et al., 2017).

FIGURE 3.

FIGURE 3

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Synthesis of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in the udder gland.

2.1.1. CLA and animal breeds

The CLA content in milk fat is in this order: caprine milk < bovine milk < ovine milk (Mollica et al., 2021). Published research data highlight that CLA levels 0.43%, 0.45%, 0.70%, and 0.02% FAME (fatty acids methyl esters) in goat, cow, sheep, and horse milk fat, respectively (Zongo et al., 2021). F. Wang et al. (2022) observed that the cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA level was higher (2.57% FAME) in yalk milk but much lower in donkey milk (0.36% FAME) and human milk (0.16% FAME). Although the endogenous synthesis of CLA was found in both ruminant and monogastric animals, the availability of VA in tissues is higher in ruminant than monogastric animals due to VA formation in rumen (Hur et al., 2017).

Holstein and Simmental bovine breeds (Zou et al., 2024), Karakachan, Rhodope Tsigai, and Middle Rhodope ovine breeds (Odzhakova & Ivanova, 2023), Caninde and Repartida caprine breeds (dos Santos et al., 2023) had different CLA levels in milk under the same feeding conditions. Florio et al. (2023) reported that the Italian native caprine Teramama breed had CLA 1.80% FAME in milk, as compared to 1.65% FAME of Saanen caprine breed under the same feeding conditions.

2.1.2. CLA and animal feeding

Pasture grazing of ruminants results in a high amount of CLA in milk compared to feeding usual forages (Agradi et al., 2020; Toral et al., 2015). It is also known that pasture is rich in unsaturated fatty acids as well as other nutrients and such a diet increases the CLA content, yields milk rich in beneficial nutrients such as vitamins, mineral, and trace elements, as well as aromatic compounds such as terpenes and phenols with better organoleptic characteristics than milk produced from concentrate feeding systems (Alothman et al., 2019; Di Trana et al., 2022; Papaloukas et al., 2016). The positive effect of grass grazing or partial grass grazing (mixture of grass, clover, herbs, etc.) on CLA content has been reported in cow milk (Dopieralska et al., 2020; Elgersma, 2015), sheep milk (Fusaro et al., 2019; Govari et al., 2019, 2020) and goat milk (Colonna et al., 2021; Dauber et al., 2022; Tudisco et al., 2019). The bovine milk from pasture grazing cows presented lower CLA levels in lowland than alpine pasture in the Aosta Valley (Northwestern Italy) (Cifuni et al., 2022). The CLA levels in cheeses produced from milk of grazing pasture animals are presented in Table 1.

TABLE 1.

CLA in cheese made from milk of animals fed under grazing pasture based diet conditions.

Cheese Cheese type/ripening time Milk type Country Season/month cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA trans‐10, cis‐12 CLA Reference
Pecorino Romano cheese Hard/4 months Ovine Italy March, April, May and June 2.6, 2.5, 1.8 and 1.4 respectively % FAME, Addis et al. (2015)
Pecorino Romano cheese Hard/4 months Ovine Italy January April and June 1.2, 2.2 and 1.9 respectively % FAME, Sibono et al. (2023)
Mountain Pecorino cheese Hard/2 months Ovine Italy

Winter

Spring

 1.43‐1.60 1.93‐2.10

g/100 g FA

g/100 g FA

 Serrapica et al. (2020)
Colonia Soft/2 months Bovine Uruguay Autumn 1.54 g/100 g fat

0.07 g/100 g fat

 Hirigoyen et al. (2018)
Formaggella della Valle di Scalve Semi‐hard/3 months Bovine Italy Summer 1.49 % FAME 0.03% FAME Formaggioni et al. (2020)
Kefalotyri Hard/3 months Ovine Greece April 1.33 % FAME 0.13% FAME Govari et al. (2020)
Pecorino (Sardinian) Hard/2 months Ovine Italy Summer 1.08 g/100 g fat Martini et al. (2021)
Colonia Soft/2 months Bovine Uruguay Spring 1.06 g/100 g fat 0.04 g/100 g fat Hirigoyen et al. (2018)
Casu Axedu Hard/3 months Ovine Italy Summer 0.90 g/100 g fat Martini et al. (2021)
Kefalotyri Hard/3 months Ovine Greece December 0.87 % FAME 0.08% FAME Govari et al. (2020)
Formaggella della Valle di Scalve Semi‐hard/3 months Bovine Italy Winter 0.87 % FAME 0.02% FAME Formaggioni et al. (2020)
Caciotta Soft/2 months Caprine Italy Spring 0.83 % FAME Colonna et al. (2021)
Ricotta Soft/Whey cheese Ovine Italy Spring 0.77 mg/100 g fat Fusaro et al. (2019)
Alpine cheese Semi‐hard/60 days Bovine Italy Winter 0.58 g/100 g cheese Agradi et al. (2020)

Pecorino

Siciliano

 Hard/210 days Ovine Italy

January

May

0.22

0.41

g/100 g cheese

g/100 g cheese

 Di Trana et al. (2022)

Caciocavallo

Palermitano

 Semi‐hard/60 days Bovine Italy

February

April

0.21

0.41

g/100 g cheese

g/100 g cheese

 Di Trana et al. (2022)

Vastedda valle

del Belìce

 Soft/20 days Ovine Italy

April

June

0.26

0.25

g/100 g cheese

g/100 g cheese

 Di Trana et al. (2022)

Casizolu del

Montiferru

 Hard/180 days Bovine Italy

February

May

0.22

0.20

g/100 g cheese

g/100 g cheese

 Di Trana et al. (2022)

Caprino

Nicastrese

 Semi‐hard/20 days Caprine Italy

January

June

0.17

0.20

mg/100 g cheese

mg/100 g cheese

 Di Trana et al. (2022)
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Abbreviations: CLA, conjugated linoleic acid; FAME, fatty acids methyl esters.

Seasonality affects the lipid levels of forage plant species that subsequently affects the concentration of CLA in milk of grazing pasture ruminants (Grille et al., 2024; Kostovska et al., 2024). Whetsell and Rayburn (2022) and Toral et al. (2018) reported seasonal variation in lipids of pasture plants in Allegheny Plateau, in Appalachian Mountain region of the United States, being lower in winter than in summer. Usually an increase in CLA content in milk produced from ruminants grazing on pastures is observed in spring compared to winter in Mediterranean countries such as Greece (Papaloukas et al., 2016), while in other European countries such as Ireland in summer as compared to winter (Neville et al., 2023). Seasonal changes in CLA content in milk from pasture‐grazing ruminants has been reported in several studies such as in the cases of cow (Acosta Balcazar et al., 2022; Agradi et al., 2020; Grille et al., 2023; Hirigoyen et al., 2018; Kelava Ugarković et al., 2022), sheep (Govari et al., 2019, 2020; Kawęcka & Sosin‐Bzducha, 2014), goat (Di Trana et al., 2022; Milewski et al., 2018), and buffalo milk (Godinho et al., 2024).

Feeds supplemented by linseed, soybean, rapeseed or pea, as well as by oils such as linseed, rapeseed, sunflower, peanut, soybean, or safflower oil resulted in elevated content of CLA in cow's milk (Mordenti et al., 2015; Suksombat et al., 2016), sheep milk (Cieslak et al., 2018; Toral et al., 2018), or goat milk (Dauber et al., 2022; Emami et al., 2016). The supplementation of fish oils and fishmeal in feed increased CLA content in cow (Bodkowski et al., 2016), sheep (Frutos et al., 2018), and goat milk (Beyzi & Dall, 2023). The supplementation of flaked linseed (3.88%), salmon oil (2.64%) in concentrated feed, or control feed of goats for 21 days resulted in CLA of 52.97 mg/100 g milk, 46.78 mg/100 g milk, and 34.85 mg/100 g milk, respectively (Moya et al., 2023). The addition of 360 g/kg DM hazelnut peels in the feed of ewes’ diet was not efficient in increasing CLA in Pecorino cheese (Marino et al., 2021). The addition of cactus mixtures (Nopalea cochenillifera and Opuntia stricta) at 150–500 g/kg feed in the concentrated feed of lactating goat increased the milk yield, improved composition and sensory properties of coalho cheese, but the CLA was lower in cheese produced from this milk than in the control cheese (Araújo et al., 2023). The CLA levels in cheese types made from milk of animals fed with concentrated diets supplemented with oils, oil seeds, or plant seeds are presented in Table 2.

TABLE 2.

CLA in cheese made from milk of animals fed with concentrated diets supplemented with oil, oil seeds or plant seeds.

Cheese Cheese type/ripening time Milk type Country Oil seed/plant oil (addition in animal diet) cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA trans‐10, cis‐12 CLA Increase (%) Reference
Cheddar cheese Hard/3 months Bovine Portugal Safflower oil CLA supplement at 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4% 0.16, 0.18, 0.66, 1.03, and 1.32 mg/100 g FA 0, 12.5, 312.5, 543.75, and 725 Khan et al. (2022)
Goat cheese Soft/none Caprine Mexico Chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) (0, 2.7, 5.5 DM) 0.32, 0.48, and 0.66 % FAME 0, 50, 106.25 Schettino‐Bermúdez et al. (2020)
Model cheese – Bovine Italy Red grape (Vitis vinifera L.), 0.2% 0.25 % FAME 129.87 Ianni et al. (2019)
Caprine cheese Soft/7 days Caprine Brazil Faveleira oil 4% 1.07 % FAME 0.3% FAME 91.07 Medeiros et al. (2014)
Halloumi Semi hard/40 days Bovine Cyprus Olive cake (10% DM) 0.59 % FAME 0.26% FAME 83.33 Neofytou et al. (2020)

Pecorino

“Primo Sale”

 Soft/2 months Ovine Italy Extruded linseed (9.81% DM) 0.56 mg/100 g fat 80.64 Fusaro et al. (2020)
Processed cheese Semi hard/3 months ovine Egypt Echniacea Purpurea at 1.5% 0.52 g/100 g FA 0.27 g/100 g FA 1.96/68.75 Morsy et al. (2022)
Cacioricotta Whey cheese Bovine Italy Flaxseed 4.76% DM 0.916 % FAME 59.58 Santillo et al. (2016).
Caprine cheese Soft/7 days Caprine Brazil Sesame oil 4% 0.89 % FAME 0.2% FAME 58.92 Medeiros et al. (2014)
Processed cheese Semi hard/3 months ovine Egypt Moringa Oleifera at 1.5% 0.57 g/100 g FA 0. g/100 g FA 11.76/37.5 Morsy et al. (2022)
Goat cheese Soft/none Caprine Hungary Marine algae 5 g/head/day 0.77 g/100 g FA 37.5 Pajor et al. (2023)
Fresh cheese Soft/none Caprine Spain Salmon oil (2.64%) 47.79 mg/100 g cheese 28.14 Moya et al. (2023)
Croatian cheese Semi‐hard/none Caprine Croatia Pumpkin seed cake (160 g/kg DM) 0.38 g/100 g FA 25.48 Klir Šalavardic et al. (2022)
Parmigiano Reggiano Hard/3 months Bovine Italy Extruded linseed (0.30 kg/head/d) 0.38 % FAΜΕ 22.58 Mordenti et al. (2015)
Danbo Semi hard/180 days Caprine Uruguay 7% Sunflower oil 1.3 g/100 g fat 21.22 Dauber et al. (2021)
Processed cheese Semi hard/3 months Caprine Egypt Sunflower seeds (50 g) 0.14 g/100 g fat 0.80 g/100 g fat 16.67/12.5 Morsy et al. (2015)
Fresh cheese Soft/none Caprine Spain Flaked linseed (3.88%) 51.90 mg/100 g cheese 11.59 Moya et al. (2023)
Coalho cheese Semi hard/7 days Caprine Brazil Tannin 5.17% 0.63 and 0.59 for Caninde and Repartida breeds, respectively % FAΜΕ 8.62, 10.16 Dos Santos et al. (2023)
Ricotta Soft/whey cheese Caprine Italy Olive leaves 1.19 % FAME 8.25 Innosa et al. (2020)
Croatian cheese Semi‐hard/none Caprine Croatia Linseed (90 g/kg DM) 0.31 g/100 g FA 2.58 Klir Šalavardic et al. (2022)
Caprine cheese Soft/7 days Caprine Brazil Castor oil 4% 0.55 % FAME 0.1% FAME 1.55 Medeiros et al. (2014)
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Abbreviations: CLA, conjugated linoleic acid; DM, Dry matter; FAME, fatty acids methyl esters.

CLA levels in milk were enhanced by mixing cows' feed with ionophores such as sodium monensin (Vieira Romero et al., 2018; W. Z. Yang & He, 2016). When synthetic CLA was administered with the feed, an increase in its level in the milk was observed, accompanied though with a decrease in milk yield (K. Wang et al., 2023). It is important to note that although a feed diet rich in PUFA content is also beneficial for ruminants’ health with a high CLA lipid content in milk, but it may also result in an induced milk fat depression with low milk yield (K. Wang et al., 2023). The factors of avoiding feed induced milk fat depression could be the supplementation of rumen stabilizers, selection of more tolerant ruminants or providing feeds with proper concentrates and grains (Dewanckele et al., 2020). The supplementation of aromatic plants in feeds in an improper dosage may also have a negative effect on animal growth performance or health due to reasons such as reduction of feed palatability or changes in microflora of rumen or intestine (Toral et al., 2018).

2.2. Cheese processing

Studies conducted on a variety of cheese products highlighted no significant alterations in the lipids and CLA levels between milk and the resulting curd (Buccioni et al., 2022; Moya et al., 2023; Florio et al., 2023). This suggests that initial cheese manufacturing processes, such as pasteurization, milk acidification, rennet clotting, etc., do not affect the fatty acids levels as milk transforms into curd (Buccioni et al., 2022; Govari et al., 2022; Pajor et al., 2023). Thus, the CLA was not changed during curdling in ovine Pecorino or Kefalotyri cheese (Fusaro et al., 2020; Govari et al., 2022), bovine Minas cheese (Cerutti et al., 2016), and caprine Caciotta cheese (Colonna et al., 2021). Pasteurization of milk with temperatures at 71.6°C for 16 s did not alter CLA levels in milk (Gutierrez, 2016) or produced cheese (Kongo et al., 2014).

2.3. CLA and cheese ripening

The CLA profile during ripening time depends on factors such as cheese type, starter cultures, ripening time, or indigenous cheese microflora (Govari et al., 2020; Szterk et al., 2022). Studies on the evaluation of FA profile during cheese ripening showed an increase in the CLA levels in ovine cheese, bovine Kormoran cheese, and ovine Conciato Romano cheese (Blaiotta et al., 2021; Paszczyk & Łuczyńska, 2018; Valdivielso et al., 2016) or decrease in Cheddar cheese (Khan et al., 2022). After 7–8 months of ripening of Pecorino Romano cheese, Addis et al. (2015) found CLA levels of 2.5%, 1.8%, and 1.4% FAME in cheese samples produced in April, May, and June, respectively. Similarly, after 8 months of ripening, the CLA levels in Pecorino Romano cheese were higher in the samples produced in April than January or June (Sibono et al., 2023). After a review of published studies, Abd El‐Salam and El‐Shibiny (2014) concluded that CLA are stable during cheese ripening.

2.3.1. Probiotic bacteria and cheese ripening

In cheese, LAB strains, that is, probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (L200 and UALp‐05 strains), can convert linoleic acid to CLA during ripening time, with increased CLA levels by 1.6 and 6.6 times as much as the control in Miniature and Cheddar cheese, respectively (Ares‐Yebra et al., 2019; Khan et al., 2023). Probiotic L. plantarum (L2C21E8 and L3C1E8 strains) isolated from raw milk and used as starter cultures resulted in increased CLA levels in Pico cheese (9%–14% increase) (Ribeiro et al., 2018). Caprine coalho cheese mixed with LAB of starter culture (control), as well as probiotic bacteria of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lacticaseibacillus paracasei, and Bifidobacterium lactis presented cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA levels of 0.66%, 0.67%, 0.58%, and 0.73% FAME at the end of storage at 10°C for 28 days (Bezerra et al., 2017). The addition of starter culture of probiotic L. plantarum (TAUL 1588 strain) and probiotic Lacticaseibacillus casei (SS 1644 strain) in ovine milk resulted in increased CLA levels in ovine cheese model by 1.19 times as much as the control (Renes et al., 2019). The use of probiotic starter culture Levilactobacillus brevis B1 and L. plantarum Os2 resulted in an increase of CLA in various cheese products ranging from 2.60% to 2.85% FAME (Lepecka et al., 2022). The supplementation of inulin (6 g/100 g) and the probiotic bacteria L. acidophilus LA‐05, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB‐12 (6 log cfu/g) as starter culture in creamy goat cheese resulted in an increased CLA level as compared to the addition of control starter culture (Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris‐R‐704) (Barbosa et al., 2016). The supplementation of prebiotics such as galactooligosaccharide, fructooligosaccharide, and inulin can enhance probiotic bacteria survival and activity as well as CLA levels in dairy products including cheese (Aggarwal et al., 2024; Pourbaba et al., 2021). It is important to note that the use of probiotic bacteria as starter cultures can increase the CLA levels in cheese but they may also cause an increased rate of lipolysis or proteolysis and alter the organoleptic properties in certain cheese types (Khan et al., 2023; Lepecka et al., 2022).

2.3.2. Starter LAB and cheese ripening

Govari et al. (2020) examined the CLA levels in Kefalotyri cheese (ovine, hard cheese, 3 months of ripening) produced with yogurt as starter culture (Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus), during 3 months of ripening. The levels of trans‐10, cis‐12 CLA, and cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA in Kefalotyri cheese exhibited a significant increase (p < 0.05) during the first month of cheese ripening. This initial increase in CLA may be due to the initial growth of L. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus in the first month of ripening and the conversion of linoleic acid to CLA. Increased levels of CLA from 0.60 to 1.03 g/100 g FA were observed in semi hard caprine cheeses produced with native LAB strains as compared to cheeses made from commercial starter cultures (0.60 g/100 g FA) (Taboada et al., 2019).

2.4. CLA and cheese types

According to the percentage moisture on a fat‐free basis (MFFB%), the cheeses may be classified as extra hard (<51 MFFB%), hard (49–56 MFFB%), firm semi‐hard (54–69 MFFB%), or soft (>67 MFFB%) (General Standard for Cheese, CXS 283–1978, 2022). According to several studies (Szterk et al., 2022), the CLA levels in cheese groups have been usually found in the following order, hard > semi hard > soft cheese. Since the moisture loss results in an increase in total fat per cheese weight, this results in a concomitant increase in CLA percentage per cheese.

Szterk et al. (2022) examined 38 bovine, ovine, and caprine cheeses from various countries sold in Poland. They observed that the highest CLA was in ovine Polish Oscypek cheese (hard smoked), with an average content of 2.7 g/100 g fat. The hard bovine cheeses presented an average CLA of 2.3 g/100 g fat. The soft and semi‐hard bovine and caprine cheese showed an average CLA of 0.6 g/100 g fat. All mold cheese types presented the lowest CLA content. The CLA differences in these cheeses may be attributed to reasons such as different cheese production conditions in different countries, starter cultures, different feeding conditions of animals, or different animal breeds.

Among Polish ovine, caprine, and bovine smoked cheeses, the highest CLA content (2.30% FAME) was found in ovine smoked cheese (Filipczak‐Fiutak et al., 2021). Di Trana et al. (2022) examined five Italian cheeses, Pecorino Siciliano PDO (ovine, hard cheese, 4 months ripening), Casizolu del Montiferru (bovine, hard, 6 months ripening), Caciocavallo Palermitano (bovine, semi‐hard, stretched curd, 2 months ripening), Vastedda della Valle del Belìce PDO (ovine, soft, stretched curd, 20 days ripening), and Caprino Nicastrese cheese (caprine, semi‐hard, 20 days ripening). The highest CLA content (0.41 mg/100 g cheese) was found in Pecorino Siciliano and Caprino Nicastrese cheese made in May. In Poland, the bovine cheese types of Gouda, Edamski, Morski, Edam, Kasztelanski, and Podlaski presented higher levels of CLA in cheese produced in summer as compared to same cheese produced in winter (Paszczyk et al., 2022).

2.5. CLA and cheese storage

Inacio et al. (2023) reported that the CLA content in Serra da Estrela cheese (ovine, semi‐soft, rennet the extract of the flower Cynara cardunculus L., 40 days ripening) remained stable (1.47 g/100g fat) during storage at 4°C for 15 months. The CLA levels in goat cheese (control or fortified with sunflower oil) were almost unchanged throughout the 180 days of storage at 4°C (Dauber et al., 2021). Similarly, Todaro et al. (2017) did not find any changes on CLA levels in ovine stretched cheese stored at 4°C for 180 days.

2.6. Lipid oxidation

The lipid oxidation in cheese could also result in a decrease in CLA during refrigerated storage (Govari et al., 2022). CLA is prone to lipid oxidation, since the presence of conjugated double bonds in fatty acids markedly increases their rate of oxidation relative to PUFAs with methylene‐interrupted double bonds. The cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA or trans‐10, cis‐12 CLA levels were decreased in Kefalotyri cheese stored under modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (70% N2/30% CO2) or vacuum and fluorescent light conditions by 9.2% and 9.6% on the first month of storage at 4°C, respectively, due to lipid oxidation (Govari et al., 2022). Feta cheese produced from milk of lactating ewes fed with a mixture of cornus extracts (0.5 g/kg feed), oregano essential oil (0.01 g/kg feed), and thyme essential oil (0.005 g/kg feed) showed lower lipid oxidation, compared to the control (Kalaitsidis et al., 2021).The cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA levels were 0.86% FAME and 0.80% FAME in Feta cheese with cornus extracts plus essential oils and in the control cheese, respectively. The CLA levels were also decreased in Graviera Agraphon (ovine‐caprine hard cheese, 3 months of ripening) cheese stored under MAP (50% CO2/50% N2) and fluorescent light conditions at 4°C for 60 days (decrease 8.3%), because of lipid oxidation (Fletouris et al., 2015). Bovine smoked cheese presented total CLA levels of 2.64% FAME and 1.39% FAME on 1 and 69 days of storage at 5°C, and these changes may be due to lipid oxidation (Dopieralska et al., 2020). The addition of vitamin E (100–200 mg/kg) and selenium (800–1200 µg/kg) in Cheddar cheese curd caused a delay of lipid oxidation and a lower reduction of PUFA in the cheese (PUFA reduction 1.03%) as compared to control (PUFA reduction 26.2%) by the end of storage at 4°C for 12 weeks (Batool et al., 2018). Ianni et al. (2019) found that the red grape supplementation (0.2%) in feeds of cows resulted in lower lipid oxidation in produced model cheese during 30 days of ripening with TBARs (Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) 0.12 and 0.04 µg/g, and CLA 0.13% and 0.23% FAME in control and supplemented cheese, respectively. Govari et al. (2023) reported that Kefalotyri cheese stored aerobically for 40 days at 4°C under either fluorescent light, exhibited a consistent reduction in cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA, and trans‐10, cis‐12 CLA levels of 18.79% and 56.25%, respectively. Kefalotyri cheese stored aerobically for 40 days at 4°C under dark conditions, presented lower decrease in cis‐9, trans‐11 CLA and trans‐10, cis‐12 CLA levels of 16.77% and 31.25%, respectively. The decrease in CLA levels was attributed to lipid oxidation with malondialdehyde levels of 2200 ng/g cheese and 1300 ng/g cheese by the end of storage under fluorescent light and dark, respectively.

3. FUTURE STUDIES ON CLA IN CHEESE

After extensive literature search, this review has highlighted certain aspects of CLAs in cheese that need further investigation. Producers, in order to increase CLA in milk and cheese, often overlook the adverse possible effects on animal growth performance and health by feeding them with plant oils. Furthermore, the sensory properties of cheese produced by probiotic starter cultures for increased CLA in cheese should be also further examined. Finally, strategies to protect CLA in cheese from oxidation should be developed. These can include the incorporation of suitable components in the animals’ feed, exogenous addition of antioxidants during processing, as well as optimizing processing conditions and packaging.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Pasture grazing and supplementing concentrated feeds with plant oils or marine oils from fish or algae are effective means of increasing CLA levels in ruminants’ milk and produced cheese. The plants oils should be mixed in feeds at a proper dosage to avoid feed‐induced milk fat depression or a negative effect on animal growth performance or health. Certain probiotic LAB used as starters can increase CLA in cheese during ripening. Since these bacteria can affect organoleptic properties of produced cheese, they should be examined before any commercial use. Lipid oxidation can decrease PUFA and CLA levels in cheese during refrigerated storage. Thus, cheese may be protected using MAP conditions with no oxygen presence or supplementing feeds with plant antioxidant components for the production of milk and the derived cheese. Future research studies should be accomplished for the evaluation of factors influencing the presence of CLA in cheese (Supporting Information Tables 1–2 and Figures 1–3).

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Maria Govari: Conceptualization, writing—original draft, methodology, visualization, data curation, formal analysis, software. Patroklos Vareltzis: Visualization, validation, writing—review and editing, data curation.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Supporting information

Supporting Information

JFDS-90-0-s002.docx (30.2KB, docx)

Supporting Information

JFDS-90-0-s001.docx (2.5MB, docx)

Govari, M. , & Vareltzis, P. (2025). Conjugated linoleic acid in cheese: A review of the factors affecting its presence. Journal of Food Science, 90, e70021. 10.1111/1750-3841.70021

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