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. 2025 Feb 4;15:4194. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-84190-w

Benefits of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis’s floral volatile components on human emotions and moods

Yan Cai 1, Hannan Chen 1, Xin Zhang 1, Wanning Bu 1, Wei Ning 1,✉
PMCID: PMC11794631  PMID: 39905110

Abstract

With the advancement of society, there has been an increasing focus on the health status of college students, with plants playing a significant role in the campus environment. Investigating the impact of the aromatic scent of plants on the physical and mental well-being of college students is essential. This study centered on the common indoor potted flower Gardenia jasminoides Ellis to delve into its aroma and the influence of its volatiles on the physical, mental, and emotional recovery of college students. The findings revealed that the subjects in both the olfactory group (G1) and the control group (G2) exhibited a decrease in blood pressure, pulse, β wave power, and skin electrical signal, alongside an increase in α wave power and heart rate variability (HRV) index. Notably, G1 saw a rise in α wave power by 0.17 µV2/Hz and G2 experienced an increase in HRV index by 0.184, while the power of β wave decreased by 2.589 and 0.01 µV2/Hz, respectively. Moreover, psychological indicators showed a significant increase in ‘energy’ and ‘self’ scores for both G1 and G2. Additionally, the perception of gardenia odor by college students was found to be associated with various physiological and psychological indicators in the experiment. The study highlighted that the volatiles of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis are rich in terpenes and alcohols, with terpenes playing a role in blood pressure regulation and relaxation, while alcohols like linalool contribute to air freshness, nervous system regulation, and sedative effects. The findings of our research offer backing for utilizing aromatic plants with terpenes and alcohols, such as gardenia, to enhance their health-promoting properties.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-024-84190-w.

Keywords: EEG, Emotions, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, Moods, Smell, BVOCS

Subject terms: Psychology, Environmental sciences

Introduction

With the development and progress of society, the health status of youth groups has gradually attracted attention. College students, as an integral part of the youth demographic, are often under high societal expectations. This pressure can lead to feelings of stress and anxiety among students. Being the focal point of national education, college students are at a crucial stage in their lives for acquiring knowledge and shaping their beliefs1,2. However, the psychological and physiological well-being of contemporary college students is significantly impacted by the pressures of employment, academics, and social interactions3,4. If these pressures are not promptly addressed, students may experience conditions such as neurasthenia, anxiety, depression5,6, as well as mental health issues, cardiovascular diseases, and other health ailments7,8.

In recent years, numerous studies have demonstrated that interacting with plants can alleviate emotions and enhance human health. For instance, a study by Shibata and Suzuki revealed that compared to an empty room, an indoor environment with potted plants can lead to improved well-being and productivity among college students9. Similarly, Kim and Mattson found that subjects in a room with red geraniums experienced quicker recovery from stress compared to those in a plant-free room10. Many garden plants possess both aesthetic appeal and aromatic scents, which impact the human body through visual and olfactory stimulation. Research has indicated that observing real plants can help alleviate stress and anxiety11,12. Moreover, plant odors can stimulate the brain and influence human physiology13,14. The fragrance of plants is often attributed to their volatile compounds, such as alcohols and terpenes15, For example, alcohols and terpenes are the main organic compounds that constitute floral fragrance16–18. Terpenes, for example, have been shown to possess regulatory and antidepressant effects on the nervous system, as well as the ability to lower blood pressure and promote sleep19–22. Furthermore, certain volatile compounds exhibit properties like virus removal, and health benefits23–26.

The stimulation of plant smells or landscapes can impact human health. Human senses such as hearing, taste, smell, touch, and vision are regulated by the central nervous system27,28. The activity of the autonomic nervous system leads to the manifestation of various physiological indicators when the body experiences a specific emotional state. These indicators include skin electrical response (also known as skin current response, or GSR), heart rate, and respiration2. The electrical activity generated when the human brain is stimulated can be recorded as an electroencephalogram (EEG)29. Apart from its use in clinical medicine and psychology, this technology has also found applications in various other fields30. This study utilized the high temporal resolution characteristics of EEG to capture short-term cognitive events during the experiment and analyze brain waves (alpha and beta waves)31.

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, a member of the Rubiaceae genus Gardenia, In the 2020 edition of the ‘Chinese Pharmacopoeia’, which explores the principles of traditional Chinese medicine, it is noted that gardenia flower possesses properties that ‘clear heat and remove dampness, cool the blood, and detoxify the body.’32, Its aromatic fragrance and elegant white appearance have inspired numerous poems by literati, such as Liu Yuxi’s ‘The color is as beautiful as the color attached to the jade tree, and the fragrance is as sweet as that from Chang ‘e.’ and Yang Wanli’s ‘Gardenias bloom like the snow, and birds play here without taking a single petal.’ This study aims to explore the potential of alleviating negative emotions in young individuals under pressure through the olfactory experience of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. By conducting qualitative and quantitative analysis of Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (BVOC) emitted by Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, the research seeks to establish a theoretical framework for objectively evaluating the impact of garden plant odors on human health. The specific research questions to be addressed include:

  1. Is the autonomic nervous system or central nervous system of young individuals experiencing stress affected by smelling or watching Gardenia jasminoides Ellis? If so, are there any differences between the two stimulus conditions?

  2. Can young individuals experiencing stress improve their negative emotions by sniffing Gardenia jasminoides Ellis flowers or watching them? If so, is there a correlation between emotional regulation, physical recovery effects, and the pleasure of the smell?

  3. Which substances in the volatiles of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis have a positive impact on college students, and what is the rate of volatilization ?

Materials and methods

Experimental preparation stage

The experimental materials consisted of potted Gardenia jasminoides Ellis plants, which were obtained from Changchun Flower Market in December 2023. The plants exhibited good growth conditions, with a height of approximately 30 cm (excluding pots) and a crown width of about 20 cm. The leaves were dense, and the flowers had a diameter of around 6 cm when fully bloomed, appearing pure white with a strong fragrance. As the flowers decayed, they turned slightly yellow and emitted a lighter aroma.

The study participants were college students, both undergraduate and graduate, aged between 20 and 26 years. Volunteers were recruited openly through the campus network and participated in the experiment voluntarily and with full awareness. Criteria for inclusion included being in good mental and physical health, possessing a normal sense of smell without any diseases, and not experiencing allergic reactions to any experimental materials. Individuals with rhinitis, colds, or olfactory disorders were excluded following preliminary interviews. Participants were instructed to wash their scalp and hair the day before the experiment, refrain from smoking, drinking alcohol, using perfume, or applying strongly scented cosmetics on the day of the experiment33. Fasting was also prohibited to prevent disruptions in brain waves due to low blood sugar levels34. The minimum sample size of 60 participants was determined using Gpower software based on the effect size, α level (typically 0.05), and statistical power (usually 0.80 or higher). To prevent cumulative effects, each group of subjects only underwent one set of experiments.

The experimental site is situated in the classroom of the Teaching Development Research Center at Jilin Agricultural University. The dimensions of the two spaces are 4 m in length, 3 m in width, and 3.1 m in height. The layout is uniform, with white walls enclosing the rooms. Only essential experimental equipment is present in the rooms. Room 1 serves as a control room and does not contain any plant materials. In contrast, room 2 houses two pots of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis as plant materials, positioned approximately 40 to 50 cm away from the observer (based on preliminary testing to ensure optimal perception of the plant materials within the line of sight). The experiment lasts for 10 min, a common break duration in educational settings to allow students to experience the indoor environment. The height of the setup is adjusted to fall between the subject’s chest and nose, simulating scenarios such as indoor reading or office work. Prior to the experiment, the site undergoes thorough ventilation, and any non-essential electronic devices are turned off to avoid interference with the study.

The experimental equipment consisted of the Emotiv Epoc X portable EEG device and Omron sphygmomanometer. Three computers were linked to the EEG device, GSR skin electrical sensor, and HRV heart rate variability measurement equipment. The psychological indicators of the subjects were assessed using the Profile of Mood States (POMS) scale. Additionally, a 7-point evaluation table was used to measure odor pleasure perception.

Experimental design

Sixty subjects were divided into three groups, each consisting of 20 individuals. The groups were named as follows: the ‘visual olfactory group (G1)’ which involved watching and smelling plant materials, the ‘olfactory group (G2)’ which only involved smelling plant materials, and the ‘control group (CG)’ which served as a blank control group.

Prior to the experiment, preparatory work was conducted. A conductive saline solution (sodium chloride solution with a concentration of 0.7–4%) was prepared in advance and used to moisten each EEG electrode. It was ensured that all equipment, including the EEG instrument, computer, and others, had sufficient power and were functioning properly throughout the experiment. The experimental procedure is outlined in Fig. 1. The subjects have been informed and have agreed to the publication of their images in the experimental renderings, confirming that informed consent was obtained from all participants. This study has received approval from the Ethics Committee. Confirms that all experiments were performed in accordance with relevant named guidelines and regulations.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Flow chart of experiment.

  1. In room 1, subjects first filled in an informed consent form, then sat quietly with their eyes closed for 3 minutes to adjust their state, followed by a 5-minute period of applying pressure. Subsequently, the subjects were asked to recite the first paragraph of the ancient Chinese ‘Tengwang Pavilion Preface’ for 3 min on the spot. Pre-test indicators such as blood pressure and pulse were then measured. After completing the Profile of Mood States (POMS) form, the experimental assistant guided them to Room 2 to wear and adjust the EEG, HRV heart rate ear clips, and GSR skin electrical equipment.

  2. The G1/G2/CG experiment lasted for 10 min. Subjects wore experimental equipment and engaged in corresponding activities in front of olfactory materials. EEG activity was continuously monitored throughout the experiment, with data from the first minute serving as the pre-test EEG index and data from the 10th minute as the post-test index.

  3. Following the experiment, monitoring equipment was removed, blood pressure was measured again, and pulse was recorded as the post-test index. Subjects then completed the POMS post-test form and odor pleasure perception scale. Each group of experiments involved random stimulation of subjects. While intervention stages varied in terms of stimulation type, all other steps remained consistent. The average test duration per person was approximately 10 min.

After the experiment concluded, recorded data was saved, experimental equipment was organized and cleaned, and the site was restored. Ventilation was conducted by opening doors and windows for 10 min during each test interval to eliminate residual odors in the air.

Measurement method

Determination of physiological indexes related to autonomic nervous system (ANS) and central nervous system (CNS)

The selected physiological indicators were categorized into autonomic nervous system (ANS) related indicators (blood pressure, pulse pressure, pulse, GSR skin conductance, and HRV heart rate variability index) and central nervous system (CNS) related indicators (α brain wave and β brain wave).

EEG instruments were utilized for preliminary filtering and screening of brain waves, along with tools such as a sphygmomanometer and GSR skin electrical sensor. Data conversion of blood pressure, heart rate, EEG, and other involuntary physiological activities into visual experimental data was conducted using software such as Excel (Microsoft Office Excel2021 https://www.microsoft.com/zh-cn/microsoft-365/excel) spreadsheet and MATLAB (MATLAB R2021b https://ww2.mathworks.cn/products/matlab.html). The results were then compared with subjective evaluation outcomes to draw conclusions.

Measurement of psychological indicators and odor perception model scale

Using the simple POMS psychological scale, individuals’ emotional states during a specific time period were assessed through self-report emotional state scoring. Data was collected and summarized to draw conclusions, with scores for tension (T), anger (A), fatigue (F), depression (D), vitality (V), confusion (C), and self-esteem (E) being considered. The Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) was calculated as the sum of negative emotion scores minus the sum of positive emotion scores, plus 10035.The resulting value indicates the emotional state, with higher values suggesting a more negative emotional state and lower values indicating a more positive emotional state36. Odor perception was measured using Xiao Jieling’s odor pleasure perception model scale, which evaluates subjects’ subjective assessments and psychological feelings towards plant materials in terms of freshness, calmness, suitability, and naturalness. Higher scores indicate greater satisfaction with the current odor environment.

Determination of volatile components and volatilization rate of Gardenia Gardenia Jasminoides Ellis

The volatile substances of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis were extracted using headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME). The instruments employed in this process included gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) from Agilent (USA), a MW 40–275 extraction needle ( 50 / 30 μm coating thickness ) from Supelco (USA), a gas bag from Beijing Bailingwei Technology Co., Ltd., a PC2440 electronic balance from Mettler (Switzerland), a glass sheet (2 cm × 2 cm), and a 50 mL glass bottle from Shanghai Medical Device Factory 5, along with ether and decyl acetate from Sigma-Aldrich (USA). BVOC sampling and population experiments were conducted simultaneously. Initially, a blooming gardenia flower was cut, and the stamens were removed to prevent any allergic reactions from the experimenter, thereby maintaining experimental consistency during volatile collection. The dry weight of the flower was 4.4027 g. It was placed in a 2 L Teflon FEP membrane gas sampling bag for in-situ sampling of BVOC emissions, with blank samples collected as background values over a period of 30 min. Upon completion of the collection, all sampling bags were retrieved. Subsequently, the SPME fiber was inserted into the sampling bag and exposed to the volatiles for 40 min to ensure complete adsorption. The extraction needle was then transferred to the GC-MS for analysis, with the following GC working conditions: chromatographic column: DB-624MS (60 m × 0.32 mm × 1.8 μm); temperature programming: 40 °C for 3 min, increasing at 6 °C/min to 250 °C, maintained for 3 min, then raised to 270 °C and maintained for 5 min; column flow was set at 1 mL/min, with high purity helium (He) as the carrier gas. The mass spectrometry (MS) working conditions were set as follows: ionization mode was electron ionization (EI), with an electron energy of 70 eV, and a scanning range from 29 to 350 amu. The interface temperature was maintained at 250 °C, the ion source temperature at 230 °C, and the quadrupole temperature at 150 °C. The required compressed air pressure was 0.1 MPa. Qualitative analysis was conducted based on the NIST08 spectrum library retrieval, supplemented by literature references and the physical properties of the substances. The relative content of each volatile compound was calculated using the peak area normalization method, while quantitative analysis employed the internal standard method. To prepare the internal standard, 50 µl of decyl acetate were dissolved in 20 mL of ether. Subsequently, 10 µl of this standard solution were applied to glass slides, which were allowed to naturally volatilize and dry. The glass slides, along with gardenia flowers, were then placed in a 50 mL glass bottle, where they were inserted into the extraction needle for adsorption over a period of one hour.

The BVOC emission rate was calculated according to the following formula : E = M / ( m * t ). Among them, E ( ng · g− 1 · h− 1 ) was the BVOC emission rate, M ( ng ) was the measured BVOC concentration, m ( g ) was the dry weight of flowers in the sampling bag, and t ( h ) was the sampling time.

Statistical analysis

MATLAB software was utilized to extract EEG features from the original EEG data of the experiment. The EEG data from the first and tenth minutes of each EEG signal were selected as comparative data before and after the experiment. The data underwent preprocessing and filtering to eliminate noise37–39, Subsequently, the power of brain waves (α wave, β wave, etc.) before and after the experiment was calculated as the experimental data.

Excel was employed to summarize all experimental data, and SPSS 25 software (IBM SPSS Statistics 25 https://www.ibm.com/cn-zh/spss) was used to perform a significant T-test on the experimentally obtained data (blood pressure, heart rate, POMS value, α-wave power, and β-wave power, etc.) to derive the final experimental results. The test results were presented as mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD). Significance was determined by a significance test (P < 0.05), with extreme significance denoted by P < 0.01.

Results and analysis

Analysis of the effect of smelling Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on physiological indexes of college students

Olfactory analysis of the effect of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on the autonomic nervous system (ANS) : blood pressure, pulse and HRV index, GSR activity

The instruments utilized in the experiment included the Emotiv Epoc X portable EEG device (San Francisco, California, USA), an Omron sphygmomanometer (Omron Health Medical (China) Co., Ltd.), a GSR skin electrical sensor, and a heart rate variability (HRV) index monitor (Beijing Zhongke Xinyan Technology Co., Ltd.). The study findings from G1 indicated a statistically significant decrease in systolic blood pressure (P < 0.05) following exposure to olfactory plant material, with a mean decrease of 4.600 mmHg (Fig. 2). Similarly, diastolic blood pressure showed a significant decrease (P < 0.05) with a mean decrease of 3.350 mmHg, and pulse rate also exhibited a significant decrease (P < 0.05) with a mean decrease of 2.650 bpm.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Blood pressure and pulse changes before and after the experiment. Note: CG : blank control group. G1 : watching and smelling plant materials group. G2 : only smelling plant materials group. SBP : systolic blood pressure. DBP : diastolic blood pressure. P : pulse ns : no significant. * At the 0.05 level (two-tailed), the correlation is significant. ** At the 0.01 level (two-tailed), the correlationis significant.

On the other hand, the results from G2 demonstrated a significant decrease in systolic blood pressure (P < 0.01) after exposure to fragrance, with a mean decrease of 3.800 mmHg. Additionally, there were significant differences in the changes of diastolic blood pressure and pulse before and after exposure to fragrance (P < 0.05). The mean decrease in diastolic blood pressure was 1.900 mmHg, and the pulse rate decreased by 2.750 bpm (Fig. 2) .

The results of the blank control experiment indicated no significant changes in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and pulse (p > 0.05), with decreases of 1.150 mmHg, 0.700 mmHg, and 0.850 bpm, respectively. G1 and G2 exhibited notable alterations in blood pressure and pulse before and after the experiment, whereas CG showed no significant changes (Fig. 2) .

Previous studies have demonstrated a negative correlation between HRV index and anxiety and depression40–42. The HRV index of G1 did not show a significant change after exposure to plant materials (p > 0.05), with an increase of 0.166. Similarly, there was no significant change in the HRV index of G2 participants after smelling plant materials with eyes closed (p > 0.05), showing an increase of 0.184. In contrast, the HRV index of CG participants did not significantly change following the blank control experiment (p > 0.05), with an increase to 0.126 (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Changes of HRV index and skin electrical signal before and after the experiment. Note: ns : no significant. * At the 0.05 level (two-tailed), the correlation is significant. ** At the 0.01 level (two-tailed), the correlationis significant.

The skin electrical signal of G1 showed a significant change after sniffing the plant materials (P < 0.05), showing a slight increase of 0.285. These results indicate that the skin electricity of the subjects decreased following the smell and sniff experiment, while the control group exhibited an increase in value (Fig. 3).

Effect of sniffing Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on central nervous system ( CNS ) : Brain activity

According to previous studies, the presence of α waves in the human body is associated with a calm, relaxed, and comfortable state43–45. On the other hand, β waves are dominant during attention tasks, with their frequency gradually increasing in states of relaxation, alertness, excitement, and anxiety46–48. Analyzing the EEG data from G1, it was observed that both α and β waves showed significant changes (P < 0.01). The power of α waves increased by 0.17 µV2/Hz, while the power of β waves decreased by 0.001 µV2/Hz. Similarly, the EEG data from G2 exhibited significant changes (P < 0.01) after 10 min of exposure to the scent of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. In this case, the power of α waves increased by 0.09 µV2/Hz, and the power of β waves decreased by 0.01 µV2/Hz. Conversely, there were no significant changes in the control group (CG) before and after the experiment, with an increase in the power of both α and β waves. The impact of this increase on relaxation or anxiety levels is inconclusive. However, EEG statistics suggest that the visual-olfactory interaction with Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, or simply smelling it, can help alleviate tension and anxiety, leading to a more calm and relaxed state in the human body (Fig. 4) .

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Changes of α wave and β wave before and after the experiment. Note: CG : blank control group. G1 : watching and smelling plant materials group. G2 : only smelling plant materials group. ns : no significant.* At the 0.05 level (two-tailed), the correlation is significant. ** At the 0.01 level (two-tailed), the correlationis significant.

Analysis of the effect of smelling Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on college students ' psychological indicators

The results from Fig. 5 show that following the closed-eye scent experiment, there was a significant decrease in negative emotion scores among the participants compared to before the scent (P < 0.05). Specifically, tension, anger, fatigue, depression, and panic scores all exhibited a highly significant difference before and after the scent (P < 0.01). Additionally, positive emotions saw an increase in energy (E) scores by 3.9 points and self (S) scores by 4.0 points, reaching a significant level of difference (P < 0.05) post-smelling. The total emotional state valuation score (TMD) indicated a significant reduction in negative emotions after exposure to the aroma of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (P < 0.01).

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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The change of poms emotional factors before and after the experiment. Note: CG : blank control group. G1 : watching and smelling plant materials group. G2 : only smelling plant materials group.T: Tension, A: anger, F: fatigue, D: depression, V: vitality, C: confusion, E: self-esteem, TMD: overall assessment of emotion, ns : not significant, * At the 0.05 level (two-tailed), the correlation is significant. ** At the 0.01 level (two-tailed), the correlationis significant.

In group G1, the experiment involving the scent of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis resulted in a significant decrease in negative emotion scores (P < 0.05) (Fig. 5) .

The results of the two groups showed that the TMD value of G2 decreased more than that of G1, and the difference was 2.8. The TMD value of CG did not change significantly. Therefore, it can be seen that the olfactory and olfactory effects of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis have a restorative effect on the human body, while the blank control experiment cannot infer whether it has a restorative effect.

Analysis of volatile substances in Gardenia jasminoides Ellis

Analysis of the main volatiles of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis

The study identified 40 different volatiles in Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, including 10 terpenes, 2 alkanes, 7 alcohols, 15 esters, 2 ketones, and other compounds. Among these, olefins, alcohols, and esters were found to be the most abundant volatile substances in the samples. Analysis of the data revealed higher relative contents of linalool, ocimene, farnesene, caryophyllene, and benzoate in the Gardenia jasminoides Ellis samples.

Previous research has indicated that farnesene, linalool, and ocimene are the primary floral aroma compounds in Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, which aligns with the findings of this experiment16–18.

Analysis of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis volatile emissions BVOCS results

The total volatile components extracted for 30 min are depicted in Fig. 6. Upon removal of the internal standard and impurities, the highest component content was found to be β-Ocimene, exhibiting a volatilization rate of 26.275 ng · g− 1 · h− 1. Other volatiles with higher content included Linalool at 19.024 ng · g− 1 · h− 1, α-Farnesene at 6.099 ng · g− 1 · h− 1, (Z)-Hex-3-enyl (E)-2-methylbut-2-enoate at 4.798 ng · g− 1 · h− 1, caryophyllene at 3.096 ng · g− 1 · h− 1, 3-Hexen-1-ol, benzoate, (Z)- at 2.495 ng · g− 1 · h− 1, methyl salicylate at 1.623 ng · g− 1 · h− 1, and 2,6-Dimethyl-1,3,5,7-octatetraene, E, E-, at 1.050 ng · g− 1 · h− 1 .

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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Particle flow diagram of gardenia flower volatiles.

Analysis of the results of the odor pleasure perception model scale

ANOVA analysis of variance revealed significant differences in the intensity (F = 15.229, P < 0.001), purity (F = 7.339, P = 0.010), cleanliness (F = 11.505, P = 0.002), calmness (F = 11.581, P = 0.002), preference (F = 8.949, P = 0.005), suitability (F = 6.430, P = 0.015), and naturalness (F = 5.465, P = 0.025) of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis odor between G1 and G2 groups (Table 1) .

Table 1.

Odor perception ANOVA analysis of variance.

Indicators Group Average Standard deviation ANOVA
F Sig.
Intensity G1 5.30 1.081 15.229 0.000**
G2 3.75 1.410
Purity G1 4.950 1.234 7.339 0.010**
G2 3.650 1.755
Cleanliness G1 5.15 1.182 11.505 0.002**
G2 3.60 1.667
Freshness G1 4.95 1.468 0.097 0.757
G2 4.80 1.576
Quietness G1 3.80 1.473 11.581 0.002**
G2 5.40 1.501
Preference G1 4.90 1.410 8.949 0.005**
G2 3.65 1.226
Familiarity G1 3.80 1.852 3.048 0.089
G2 2.90 1.373
Suitability G1 4.65 0.988 6.430 0.015*
G2 5.65 1.461
Naturality G1 5.65 1.309 5.465 0.025*
G2 4.70 1.261
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Note : F : F test, Sig. : Significance level of hypothesis test. * At the 0.05 level (two-tailed), the correlation is significant. ** At the 0.01 level (two-tailed), the correlationis significant.

The average familiarity score for G1 was low at 3.8 points, indicating limited familiarity with Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. The highest average score was for naturalness at 5.65 points, followed by intensity at 5.3 points, suggesting that subjects perceived the scent through both sight and smell, with intensity and naturalness being particularly notable. In G2, the highest average score was 5.65 for suitability, followed by 5.4 for calmness, indicating that subjects associated the scent with a suitable environment and a calming effect on mood.

Correlation analysis between odor pleasure perception and physiological and emotional indicators

The study analyzed the relationship between changes in TMD total value, blood pressure, pulse, skin conductivity, and heart rate before and after exposure to Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, as well as the scores on nine dimensions of odor perception scale including intensity, purity, cleanliness, freshness, calmness, preference, familiarity, suitability, and naturalness (Figs. 7 and 8) .

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Correlation between sensory evaluation and physical and mental recovery of the olfactory group before and after the experiment. Note: Δ TMD : TMD post-test value - TMD pre-test value. Δ DBP : diastolic blood pressure after the measured value - diastolic blood pressure before the measured value. Δ SBP : post-systolic blood pressure measurement - pre-systolic blood pressure measurement. Δ HRV : post-test value of heart rate variability - pre-test value of heart rate variability. Δ P : post-pulse measurement - pre-pulse measurement. Δ GSR : skin electrical post-test value - skin electrical pre-test value.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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Correlation between olfactory group perception evaluation and physical and mental recovery before and after the experiment. Note: Δ TMD : TMD post-test value - TMD pre-test value. Δ DBP : diastolic blood pressure after the measured value - diastolic blood pressure before the measured value. Δ SBP : post-systolic blood pressure measurement - pre-systolic blood pressure measurement. Δ HRV : post-test value of heart rate variability - pre-test value of heart rate variability. Δ P : post-pulse measurement - pre-pulse measurement. Δ GSR : skin electrical post-test value - skin electrical pre-test value.

In G1, skin conductance showed a significant correlation with naturalness (P < 0.05), fitness correlated with △ TMD ( TMD post-test value-TMD pre-test value ) (P < 0.05), and strength correlated with △ DBP (Post-test value of diastolic blood pressure-pre-test value of diastolic blood pressure) (P < 0.05). In G2, cleanliness was significantly correlated with △ TMD, fitness with △ HRV (Post-measurement of heart rate variability-pre-measurement of heart rate variability) (P < 0.05).

Discussions

Effects of sniffing and sniffing Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on autonomic nervous system, central nervous system and emotion of college students under pressure

The human brain is highly responsive to odors, and whether the odors received are beneficial for physical and mental well-being can be observed through brain activity14. The findings from an experiment on brain activity indicated that inhaling Gardenia jasminoides Ellis can enhance alpha wave power and reduce beta wave power, leading to relaxation and tension relief. Alongside brain activity results, data on blood pressure, pulse, and POMS scale demonstrated the experiment’s restorative effects on the human body. Research has also shown that certain plants influence individuals’ physical and mental states through odor emissions; for instance, the scent of roses can alleviate anxiety and reduce mental stress49–51. The outcomes of this study align with previous research on human olfactory experiments, highlighting that aromatic plants rich in terpenoids can modulate blood pressure, induce physical and mental relaxation, alleviate fatigue, and mitigate negative emotions52–54.

In addition to visual stimulation, research has shown that observing real plants can reduce skin conductivity, heart rate stress response, and lower levels of psychological distress and stress recovery11,12. Furthermore, an olfactory experiment involving Gardenia jasminoides Ellis demonstrated a restorative effect on the subjects’ body and mind, alleviating tension and anxiety. These findings suggest that incorporating visual stimulation may have a positive impact on reducing individuals’ physical and mental pressure.

Terpenes and alcohols in volatiles of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis have a positive effect on college students

Different volatiles of aromatic plants have varying characteristics and effects on the human body. Aromatic plants release various organic compounds at different rates within a limited timeframe, with the emission rate of certain organic compounds playing a crucial role in potentially promoting human health. The prominent volatiles identified in this experiment included ocimene, linalool, farnesene, β-caryophyllene, and methyl salicylate, among others, with terpenes representing a significant portion.Recent research has highlighted the ability of terpenes to regulate blood pressure, induce relaxation, provide antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties22,55–58. Furthermore, studies have indicated that terpenes like α-pinene, β-pinene, and limonene found in cedar’s aromatic components can enhance the nervous system and vascular function, while alcohol compounds such as linalool can improve air freshness, regulate the human nervous system, induce relaxation with noticeable sedative effects, and promote overall health59–62.

Many plant aromas are primarily composed of terpenes, which interact with the human olfactory system to produce various effects on the body63–65. The findings of this research align with human olfactory studies indicating that aromatic plants rich in terpenoids can help regulate blood pressure, improve memory and learning, alleviate fatigue, and mitigate negative emotions52–54. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the organic compounds emitted by Gardenia jasminoides Ellis can potentially enhance human well-being, reduce anxiety and depression, and offer certain advantages in promoting the physical and mental health of college students.

The correlation between college students ' odor perception of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis and physiological and emotional recovery

The olfactory stimuli in our environment can have a significant impact on human emotions and cognitive performance66. People’s intuitive perception of environmental scents plays a role in determining their willingness to remain in a particular place. Different scents evoke different emotional responses - for instance, the aroma of burning incense may induce feelings of tranquility, while the scent of grass can evoke a sense of freshness and vitality. This study investigates how individuals perceive the odor of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis and whether it is associated with physical and mental well-being. In Group 1 (G1), the naturalness, intensity, and suitability of the scent were found to be correlated with changes in skin conductance, mean transit time (TMD), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) respectively. In Group 2 (G2), cleanliness and suitability of the scent were significantly linked to TMD and heart rate variability (HRV). It is hypothesized that the perception and evaluation of the Gardenia jasminoides Ellis odor may influence alterations in both physical and mental states.

The findings of the odor perception scale indicate that college students rated Gardenia jasminoides Ellis highest in naturalness and suitability in G1. This suggests that Gardenia jasminoides Ellis can be placed in indoor settings lacking natural elements, enhancing the olfactory experience and meeting college students’ desire for natural elements indoors. In G2, higher scores were observed for suitability and calmness. It is hypothesized that reducing visual stimulation can enhance the calmness of individuals, making it suitable for placement in nighttime environments to enhance the overall suitability and calmness. By analyzing the perception results and their implications, more specific recommendations can be made for the utilization of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis.

The application of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis restorative visual-olfactory effect in campus environment

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, with a rich history of cultivation in China, is beloved for its elegant fragrance, being recognized as one of the eight major fragrant flowers in the country. Its aromatic characteristics make it a popular choice for garden plant landscaping, including notable examples like Suzhou Yiyuan lotus root and other architectural structures67.Utilizing Gardenia jasminoides Ellis in plant landscapes can enhance the overall environment. The results of this experimental study indicate that the olfactory effects of potted gardenia have a positive impact on college students experiencing stress. This finding suggests potential applications in various indoor campus environments, such as psychological counseling rooms, libraries, and dormitories. Additionally, potted plants or floral arrangements not only enhance aesthetic appeal but also release fragrances that can uplift both body and mind. The volatile components of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis possess sedative, hypnotic, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties, making it suitable for various school environments like dormitories, rest areas, and pathways. By combining visual and olfactory stimulation during the day and focusing on olfactory benefits at night, this plant can help reduce anxiety among college students and foster a conducive environment for relaxation68,69.

Limitations and prospects

There are several limitations in this study. First, this experiment has the limitation that the age structure of the subjects is more concentrated. In the future research, the number and type of the subjects can be expanded. Secondly, in the actual landscape transformation and healing environment, there may be a phenomenon of multi-sensory synergy such as sight, smell and hearing. Thirdly, this experiment carried out qualitative and quantitative analysis of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis volatiles, and obtained the specific types of volatiles and BVOC values, which provided a basis for exploring the positive impact of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis volatiles on the human body. However, this experiment did not conduct an in-depth discussion on the effect of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis volatiles rate on human body indicators, which needs further research in the future. However, our research is to further explore the effect of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on the recovery of human body, and also provides a certain basis for the plant landscape transformation and indoor horticultural therapy of aromatic plants such as Gardenia jasminoides Ellis containing terpenes and alcohols on university campus.

Conclusion

When collecting volatiles, freshly harvested blooming Gardenia jasminoides Ellis are used to restore the state of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis emitting odors. Thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry is utilized to comprehensively collect plant volatiles. Physiological indicators such as EEG data, blood pressure pulse, HRV index, and psychological indicators like emotional factors of POMS and odor perception model scales are measured to visualize and quantify the changes in various human body indicators before and after the experiment. The results indicate that smelling Gardenia jasminoides Ellis can help relieve tension, anxiety, and promote the health of college students. College students have a positive perception and evaluation of the natural and suitable aroma of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. It is evident that terpenes and alcohol volatiles, which are abundant, not only influence the odor but also contribute to enhancing human health.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1 (23.8KB, docx)

Author contributions

W.N. and H.C. wrote the main manuscript text and X.Z. prepared Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to [The experimental data involves the privacy of the subjects.] but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Material 1 (23.8KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to [The experimental data involves the privacy of the subjects.] but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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