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. 2025 Jan 24;12:1511637. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2025.1511637

Table 2.

Baseline characteristics of participants (weighted).

Characteristic All (n = 8,081) Non-GS group (n = 7,232) GS group (n = 849) p-value
N 213711302.55 190551072.20 23160230.34
Age (years), mean (SD) 48.17 (17.08) 47.14 (16.97) 56.71 (15.46) <0.001
Female (%) 51.9 49.3 68.9 <0.001
AC (cm), mean (SD) 33.73 (5.32) 33.55 (5.20) 35.27 (6.00) <0.001
BMI, mean (SD) 29.81 (7.26) 29.41 (6.95) 33.15 (8.77) <0.001
Race (%)
Non-Hispanic White 62.9 62.2 68.9 0.02
Non-Hispanic Black 11.4 11.9 7.3
Mexican American 15.9 16.0 15.1
Other race 9.8 9.9 8.7
Physical activity (%)
Never 23.7 22.9 30.4 <0.001
Moderate 34.3 33.7 39.4
Vigorous 42.0 43.3 30.2
Marital status (%)
Cohabitation 62.8 62.6 64.5 <0.001
Solitude 18.1 17.5 23.2
Never married 19.1 19.9 12.3
Alcohol consumption (%)
Never 6.4 6.3 7.1 <0.001
Ever 15.3 13.9 26.9
Now 74.7 76.2 62.1
Unclear 3.6 3.6 4.0
Education level (%)
Less than high school 10.4 10.5 9.2 0.14
High school 27.0 26.5 31.1
More than high school 62.6 63.0 59.7
Hypertension (%) 32.0 30.0 48.7 <0.001
Diabetes (%) 11.3 10.3 20.0 <0.001
Asthma (%) 15.4 15.1 18.2 0.13
CHD (%) 4.1 3.7 7.1 0.001
Cancers (%) 11.1 10.2 18.6 <0.001
Smoking status (%)
Never 57.5 58.1 52.2 0.01
Ever 25.6 24.9 32.2
Now 16.9 17.0 15.6
PIR
 < 1.3 16.5 16.5 16.1 0.006
 ≥ 1.3–<3.5 31.1 30.1 39.1
 ≥ 3.5 41.5 42.2 35.8
Unclear 10.9 11.1 9.0
Total Sugar, mean (SD) 106.52 (78.42) 106.74 (78.65) 104.71 (76.58) 0.58
Total Kcal, mean (SD) 2176.10 (991.73) 2204.17 (1003.40) 1944.24 (855.50) <0.001
Total Fat, mean (SD) 89.74 (48.81) 90.80 (49.31) 80.97 (43.51) 0.001
Total Water, mean (SD) 2497.22 (2384.69) 2513.38 (2372.27) 2363.89 (2482.38) 0.20
TG (mmol/L), mean (SD) 1.58 (1.15) 1.57 (1.17) 1.67 (1.01) 0.04
TC (mmol/L), mean (SD) 4.86 (1.06) 4.86 (1.06) 4.86 (1.05) 0.96
HDL-C (mmol/L), mean (SD) 1.39 (0.41) 1.39 (0.41) 1.37 (0.39) 0.31
LDL-C (mmol/L), mean (SD) 2.89 (0.93) 2.89 (0.92) 2.88 (0.98) 0.95
ALT (U/L), mean (SD) 22.69 (16.94) 22.76 (17.07) 22.07 (15.83) 0.47
AST (U/L), mean (SD) 21.79 (12.70) 21.87 (12.79) 21.13 (11.95) 0.20
HbA1c (%), mean (SD) 5.68 (0.95) 5.65 (0.93) 5.92 (1.08) <0.001
Ferritin (ng/ml), mean (SD) 147.69 (161.34) 149.64 (163.05) 131.81 (145.81) 0.01

N” represents the weighted total number of participants.

AC, arm circumference; BMI, body mass index; CHD, coronary heart disease; PIR, poverty income ratio; TG, triglyceride; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c.