Medico-Artistic Analysis of Red Blood Cells in Gustav Klimt’s ‘The Kiss’

Abstract

Background

This study investigates the hypothesis that the red, doughnut-shaped discs in Gustav Klimt’s iconic painting ‘The Kiss’ represent red blood cells (RBCs). The purpose is to explore the artistic and anatomical significance of these elements, examining how Klimt may have integrated contemporary scientific discoveries into his work to convey deeper symbolic meanings.

Methods

This interdisciplinary study employed a combination of medical and art history approaches, including biographical analysis, literature review and a questionnaire survey to assess viewer’s perceptions of the red discs in ‘The Kiss.’ The survey compared responses to the original painting with those to an experimentally altered version, where the red discs were removed, with the objective of determining the significance of these red discs in the artwork. The survey was conducted among 300 visitors at the Ulsan International Art Fair. Among the visitors, 69.3% of the participants were female, and the most common age group was 30–49 years old.

Results

Historical research and literature analysis revealed that the red disc-shaped patterns on the woman’s dress in Klimt’s painting closely resemble RBCs as depicted in early 20th-century scientific literature and encyclopedias. This suggests that Klimt, likely influenced by his interactions with medical scientists, intentionally incorporated contemporary scientific imagery into his artwork. The survey results indicated that 86.7% of participants recognized the painting as ‘The Kiss,’ demonstrating high familiarity with the piece. Comparisons between the original and altered versions of the painting revealed that viewers perceived notable differences in feeling, color perception, mood, and lighting.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that Klimt intentionally incorporated RBC-like motifs into his paintings, using them not only to convey anatomical symbolism and emotional depth but also as dynamic elements within a mosaic pattern. These red elements energize not only the female figure in ‘The Kiss’ but the entire composition. Klimt’s work reveals his skill in merging scientific concepts with visual and emotional expression, showcasing an innovative approach to embedding complex medical and emotional meanings through the use of symbolic imagery.

Graphical Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Gustav Klimt’s masterpiece ‘The Kiss’ (1907–1908), painted during his “Golden Period,” exemplifies his artistic style, renowned for intricate patterns, bold colors, and sensual depictions of the human form. Blending symbolism and Art Nouveau influences, Klimt was significantly influenced by the scientific discoveries of his time, particularly in embryology and histology. This research builds upon our previous publication, “Gustav Klimt’s The Kiss—Art and the Biology of Early Human Development,”1 further exploring the intricate relationship between Klimt’s art and contemporary biomedical science.

Expanding on the same analytical framework as our previous work, we have identified clusters of red, donut-shaped disc structures in the woman’s dress in ‘The Kiss’ painted on her chest and between her knees. From a medical perspective, these shapes closely resemble red blood cells (RBCs). This hypothesis has been delved by historian and art critic Kelly Grovier,2 who interprets these details as representations of blood cells, which not only add to the visual richness of the artwork but also saturate it with deeper symbolic meanings related to life and vitality. He further suggests that this symbolism would have been recognized by contemporary viewers reflecting the broader cultural and scientific awareness of the time. Grovier drew attention to Landsteiner’s 1901 study on the “agglutination phenomena in normal human blood”3 as the background for Klimt’s depiction of the morphology of RBCs. Karl Landsteiner’s discovery of the ABO blood group system revolutionized transfusion medicine by enhancing its safety and efficacy, a breakthrough recognized with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930 for its profound impact on medical practice.

This study explores the scientific symbolism embedded in Gustav Klimt’s painting ‘The Kiss,’ with a particular focus on the incorporation of RBC into the woman’s dress. Engaging with art offers a unique opportunity to broaden perspectives, develops observation skills, foster insights into medical practice, and develop critical skills like professionalism and empathy, which are challenging to teach yet essential in medical education.4 By revealing the scientific intricacies concealed within the artwork, this interdisciplinary approach not only aims to deepen the understanding of ‘The Kiss’ and its complex layers of meaning but also highlights the potential for art to engage with scientific concepts, enriching both artistic interpretation and medical understanding. The research is divided into two components. First it entails a comprehensive analysis of the historical and scientific context pertaining to the painter and the painting; and the second experimental component of the study examines the viewers’ perceptions of ‘The Kiss’ to reveal the deeper meanings behind Klimt’s symbolic use of RBC.

METHODS

Review of historical and scientific context

To explore the historical and scientific background surrounding Gustav Klimt and his painting ‘The Kiss,’ we conducted a meticulous review of contemporary sources. This involved searching textbooks and publications in German that were contemporary to the date of the painting. We also sought evidence of Klimt's acquaintances in the medical field, focusing particularly on his relationships with notable figures such as anatomist Emil Zuckerkandl and immunologist Karl Landsteiner. These sources provided insight into the scientific knowledge and medical advancements that could have influenced Klimt’s work. Additionally, we reviewed contemporary theories of color to understand the artistic and symbolic significance of color choices in Klimt’s work.

Experimental study of viewer perceptions

The experimental part of the study was conducted on the third and busiest day of the 2022 Ulsan International Art Fair (UiAF), held from June 30 to July 3 at the Ulsan Exhibition and Convention Center (UECO). Three hundred voluntary participants were presented with both the original version of ‘The Kiss’ and a modified knockout version where the red color disc structures in the woman’s dress, located on her chest and between her legs, were removed and the yellow patterned area adjacent to the red circles were duplicated to replace the red cells (Adobe Photoshop CC 21.2.6; Adobe, San Jose, CA, USA) (Fig. 1). In this study, we, the authors, have taken the artistic liberty of borrowing the term 'knockout' from gene studies to refer to the removal of the RBC-like structures from the original painting. Participants completed a questionnaire accessed via a QR code on their mobile phones. The 20-question questionnaire (Appendix 1) was developed based on Marion Boddy-Evans’ ‘Words to Describe Art,’5 with the addition of demographic questions such as age, gender, and familiarity with Klimt’s work. We conducted a χ² test of independence utilizing the ‘scipy.stats.chi2_contingency’ function in Python. Participants' responses were categorized into six perceptual dimensions: ‘feeling,’ ‘color,’ ‘tone,’ ‘texture,’ ‘mood,’ and ‘lighting.’ For each dimension, we formulated a null hypothesis proposing no significant difference in perception between the two versions, with the alternative hypothesis suggesting a significant difference.

Fig. 1. Original and modified images of Klimt ‘The Kiss’ shown to the participants. (A) Original version of ‘The Kiss.’ (B) Modified knockout version where the red color disc structures in the woman’s dress on her chest and between her legs have been removed and replaced by the adjacent yellow patterned structures.

Software used: Adobe Photoshop CC 21.2.6.

Ethics statement

The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Korea University College of Medicine (KUIRB-2022-0196-01). Informed consent was included in the questionnaire and submitted together.

RESULTS

Historical and scientific context

Gustav Klimt was part of the Viennese modernist community, which emphasized cross-fertilization between the arts and sciences. He attended salons held by Bertha Szeps-Zuckerkandl, who championed Klimt’s work, and whose husband was Emil Zuckerkandl, professor of anatomy at the University of Vienna. Zuckerkandl demonstrated to his artistic audience a marvelous new world that far exceeded their “creative fantasies” during his lectures in 1903. He darkened the room and projected lantern slides of stained microscopic tissue samples, revealing the inner world of cells. Zuckerkandl told his audience that “with a drop of blood, a little bit of brain substance, you will be transported to a fairy tale world.”6

Klimt’s association with individuals like Emil Zuckerkandl, who introduced artists to the microscopic world of cells, likely influenced his symbolic use of RBC in ‘The Kiss.’7 In addition to the lecture slides shown by Zuckerkandl, Klimt had the opportunity to view various microscopic illustrations featured in the works of Ernst Haeckel, which Zuckerkandl personally owned.8 Klimt’s exposure to scientific imagery profoundly shaped his artistic approach, embedding deep anatomical and symbolic meanings within his work, where the significance of blood in sustaining life transcended the scientific realm and found expression in his art. The red disc shaped patterns (Fig. 2A and B) on the woman’s dress of Klimt’s ‘The Kiss’ closely resemble RBC (Fig. 2C) depicted in Haeckel’s 1903 book “The evolution of man; a popular scientific study,”9 illustrating a direct visual connection to scientific literature. Additionally, the 1902 “Atlas and Epitome of Human Histology and Microscopic Anatomy” by Dr. Johannes Sobotta,10 originally published in German, shows blood corpuscles (Fig. 2D) from human blood, reminiscent of the images in Klimt’s painting. Moreover, Klimt was in possession of Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon, an encyclopedia that contained figure plates of blood corpuscles (Fig. 3).11,12 This suggests that Klimt likely drew upon these scientific resources to influence the visual elements in his work. The encyclopedia, widely accessible at the time, effectively conveyed the forms of blood cells to both the scientific community and the general public, further supporting the integration of contemporary scientific knowledge into his art.

Fig. 2. Images of RBC in Klimt’s ‘The Kiss,’ contemporary, and modern literature. (A) In Klimt’s ‘The Kiss’ red donut shaped disc structures on the woman’s dress in the chest area, suggesting RBC in her heart. (B) In Klimt’s ‘The Kiss’ red donut shaped disc structures on the woman’s dress in between her legs, suggestive of RBC of menstruation. (C) RBC depicted in Haeckel’s 1903 book “The evolution of man; a popular scientific study.”9 (D) Blood corpuscles from human blood in the 1902 “Atlas and Epitome of Human Histology and Microscopic Anatomy” by Dr. Johannes Sobotta,10 originally published in German. (E) High-voltage electron microscope observations of the morphology of RBC showing a thick pericellular zone and a thin central zone,16 which can be observed by light microscopy of the time (C, D) and depicted in Klimt’s painting (A, B). Applied microscopy is an open access journal and approval has been granted according to the CC BY-NC license.

RBC = red blood cell.

Fig. 3. Selected images from the figure plate of blood corpuscles shown in Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon encyclopedia11 which may have served as a motif for Klimt’s paintings. (A) Blood corpuscles in the bone marrow of leukemia. (B) Blood corpuscles in acute lymphocytic leukemia. (C) Blood smear from a case of malaria tertiana fever.

Translated from German: Blood and blood movement. Pathological changes in the blood including malaria parasites.

Experimental study (RBC knock out study)

Out of 300 participants, 69.3% were women. The largest age group was 30–49 years (59%), followed by 50–60 years (21.7%) and 10–20 years (19%). Attendance at art fairs was generally infrequent among participants, with 42.7% attending once or twice annually, and 30.3% attending less than once per year. Regular attendees, visiting three to four times yearly or more, comprised 27%. Recognition of ‘The Kiss’ was high, with 86.7% of participants identifying the original work, and 90.3% noticing differences between the original and knockout images.

The statistical significance of perceptual differences between the original and knockout versions of Gustav Klimt’s ‘The Kiss,’ were found in ‘feeling,’ ‘color,’ ‘mood,’ and ‘lighting.’ The detailed results of the χ² analysis are summarized in Table 1. Conversely, no statistically significant differences were observed for the dimensions of ‘tone’ and ‘texture,’ indicating that viewers’ perceptions of these elements were not significantly affected by the modification. Fig. 4 displays word clouds from the participants answers for all six categories laid out in an artistic form over the love postcard13 Klimt sent to Emilie Flöge. Feelings describing the original painting included ‘intensity,’ ‘splendor,’ ‘animation,’ ‘life,’ and ‘vigor.’ The knockout painting elicited ‘monotonous,’ ‘lifeless,’ ‘death,’ and ‘melancholy’ feelings. The original painting’s color was described mostly as ‘bright,’ ‘brilliant,’ ‘natural,’ and ‘clear,’ whilst the knockout version was described as ‘dull’ and ‘flat.’ The original painting’s mood was described as ‘cheerful’ and ‘happy,’ whilst the knockout was ‘calm,’ ‘content,’ ‘depressed,’ and ‘miserable.’ The lighting in the original painting was described as ‘warm,’ ‘yellow,’ ‘sunny,’ and ‘brilliant,’ whilst the knockout version was ‘dark’ and ‘dim.’

Table 1. Chi square (χ²) analysis of questionnaire results.

Category	χ2 value	P value	Significance
Feeling	1,487.97001	0.000	Yes
Color	58.51566	0.010	Yes
Tone	25.26902	0.447	No
Texture	29.08003	0.787	No
Mood	45.90051	0.007	Yes
Lighting	155.34623	0.000	Yes

This table presents the χ² analysis of the questionnaire results. The analysis compares the frequency of descriptive terms used by participants to describe the original and modified images. The χ² test assesses whether there is a statistically significant difference in the perception between the two images.

Fig. 4. Artistic interpretation of the word clouds from the participants answers. Artistic interpretation of the word clouds from the participants answers for all six categories laid out over the love image of the modern symbolic heart postcard Klimt sent to Emilie Flöge.13 (A) Responses to original image. (B) Responses to modified image. Each bubble represents one of the six categories of perceptual dimensions: ‘feeling,’ ‘color,’ ‘tone,’ ‘texture,’ ‘mood,’ and ‘lighting.’ The word size corresponds to the number of responses, such that larger words indicate a greater number of responses from participants.

^aStatistically significant difference (feeling, color, mood, and lighting).

^bStatistically not significant difference (tone, texture).

DISCUSSION

The study of anatomy by artists has been subject of many works of art from antient times14 to the present day, and an accurate understanding of the human anatomy has contributed to the perfection and artistry of those works.15 Klimt’s ‘The Kiss’ exemplifies this tradition, illustrating the context of anatomical and symbolic integration in art. Klimt’s integration into the Viennese modernist community, his interactions with eminent scientists, and his symbolic use of the red color align with the physiological and symbolic significance of blood in both scientific and cultural contexts. By contextualizing the artistic elements of ‘The Kiss’ within the framework of contemporary biomedical discoveries, this study illustrates how Klimt’s work can be interpreted as a visual representation of scientific principles. This interdisciplinary analysis underscores the intersection of art and science, highlighting the substantial influence of biomedical research on cultural and artistic expression.

Blood has long been believed to play a key role in sustaining life as well as holding a profound symbolic significance across various cultures and eras, often regarded as “the elixir of life” due to its mystical, religious, and patriotic importance. Blood’s status as a vital natural resource underscores its value, a concept that Gustav Klimt’s explored in his earlier monochrome drawing titled “Fish Blood” (1898), which reflects the spiritual and supernatural energy associated with blood, widely acknowledged at the time. A decade later, in 1908, Klimt’s painting ‘The Kiss’ intriguingly incorporates icons resembling microscopic RBCs, further intertwining the themes of life, vitality, and the profound significance of blood in his work, now with an added touch of scientific imagery.

Karl Landsteiner’s discovery of the ABO blood group system, published in the Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift journal3 where Emil Zuckerkandl, chair of anatomy and pathology at the University of Vienna, served as an editor, underscored the critical role of blood in human health. This groundbreaking work laid the foundation for further advancements in understanding the circulatory system’s vital function. Throughout the 19th century, significant progress in embryonic development research revealed the circulatory system’s essential role in nourishing the embryo through an intricate network of blood vessels, and the role of the RBCs, crucial for transporting oxygen and nutrients being fundamental to ensuring embryonic vitality and growth.

Hemoglobin, the protein in RBC, plays a crucial role in oxygen transport. It undergoes a conformational change when oxygen binds to it, causing a color change from dark red (deoxygenated) to bright red (oxygenated). This color change is a powerful symbol of vitality and life, as oxygenated blood is essential for sustaining bodily functions. Klimt’s use of red in the woman’s dress in ‘The Kiss’ can be seen as a visual metaphor for this physiological process, symbolizing the presence of life and the vital force coursing through the body. Furthermore, the RBC containing portions in ‘The Kiss’ are bordered by a circular rim, which appears to reflect the microscopic visual field as seen through the objective lens. This view is confirmed by histology and anatomy books published at the time, which published sketches of observations under a light microscope. The donut-shaped RBC (Fig. 2A and B) are shown with a thick pericellular zone and a thin central zone when observed by light microscopy of the time (Fig. 2C and D). This morphology is clearly visible in recent high-voltage electron microscope observations (Fig. 2E).16 The thin membranous central portion effectively enhances respiratory gas transfer into plasma and this concavity can be seen represented in Klimt’s painting. Such a choice of representation not only aligns with contemporary scientific imagery but also adds a layer of authenticity to the symbolic use of RBC in the artwork.

The strategic placement of red patterns over the woman’s chest could symbolize the heart as the source of vitality, while those between her legs could be interpreted as menstruation and fecundity. The RBC gathered in the woman’s chest could represent her anatomical heart, with the positioning of her elbow surrounding her chest forming the shape of a symbolic heart. Gustav Klimt’s use of the symbolic heart can be viewed in his love postcard (Heart Tree Greeting Card designed by the Vienna Workshop; Wiener Werkstätte)13 to Emilie Flöge, believed to be the woman in ‘The Kiss.’17 The RBCs on her heart emphasize its role in pumping and circulation, thus signifying vitality. Similarly, the RBC positioned between her legs evoke imagery of menstruation, an essential aspect of female fertility and the cycle of life. This placement aligns with Klimt's exploration of the woman’s lifecycle in his paintings, such as ‘The Kiss’ symbolizing readiness to conceive, ‘Hope I’ and ‘Hope II’ depicting pregnancy, and ‘The Three Ages of Woman’ illustrating the continuum from infancy to old age. The RBC between her legs could underscore the theme of fecundity, reflecting the natural and cyclical processes of conception and birth.

Historical beliefs, such as those of the Egyptians who viewed blood as the carrier of the human spirit, and practices from the medieval to Victorian eras that attributed mystical powers to blood, underscore its perceived potency throughout history. Blood’s status as a vital natural resource highlights its enduring value. Over time, the perception of blood evolved from a mystical substance to a scientifically studied component of human anatomy. This transformation, from antiquity to the early twentieth century, marked a significant shift from a magical to a biological understanding of blood’s role in human health and vitality.18 Cultural critic Grovier explains that the introduction of scientific discoveries by Klimt’s Viennese peers is evident in how blood is portrayed anatomically and at the cellular level in ‘The Kiss.’2

The findings of this study suggest that the red color in the RBC on the woman’s gown in ‘The Kiss’ significantly contributes to the painting’s emotional and perceptual impact by significantly in enhancing the vibrancy, emotional intensity, and overall aesthetic appeal of the painting.

The role of color in art and its psychological impact has been extensively studied. There have been various records of color since ancient times. Notably, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s “Theory of Colors”19 in the 19th century is considered a seminal work that integrates the study of art and psychology. Since then, color has also been explored in terms of scientific principles and emotional impact.

According to Wilms and Oberfeld20 color stimuli have significant effects on the emotional state of the observer, with hues, saturation, and brightness interacting to influence arousal and valence. Saturated and bright colors, particularly red, are associated with higher arousal and stronger skin conductance responses. This aligns with Klimt’s use of red in ‘The Kiss,’ suggesting an intent to evoke strong emotional reactions linked to themes of life and vitality. Elliot21 provides a comprehensive review of the theoretical and empirical research on color and its psychological impact, highlighting the early development of this field. He emphasizes that red is often associated with aggression and dominance, a concept supported by Hill and Barton,22 who found that red is an aggressive signal linked to blood. Additionally, Changizi and colleagues23,24 suggest that red indicates subtle changes in blood flow, reflecting shifts in emotional states. Klimt’s use of color, particularly red, in ‘The Kiss’ can be viewed through this lens, where the artistic choice not only enhances the visual appeal but also serves a psychological purpose, potentially influenced by contemporary scientific understanding.

The experimental results of this study support these theoretical insights. The markedly high χ² value for the ‘Feeling’ dimension is particularly noteworthy, indicating a strong association between the painting version and emotional response. These findings provide robust statistical evidence for the significant role of the RBC motifs in modulating the emotional and perceptual impact of Klimt’s painting, particularly in the dimensions of feeling, color, mood, and lighting. The consistency in tone and texture perceptions across both versions suggests that these elements remain relatively stable despite the modification, highlighting the specific and targeted impact of the red patterns on viewer experience.

Participants predominantly associated the original image with positive descriptors such as ‘intensity,’ ‘splendor,’ ‘animation,’ ‘life,’ ‘vigor,’ and ‘beauty,’ ‘youth,’ ‘love.’ These associations align with existing literature on color psychology, which suggests that saturated and bright colors, particularly red, are linked to positive emotional responses and heightened arousal levels.20 In contrast, the knockout image, devoid of red, elicited predominantly negative descriptors like ‘monotonous’ and ‘lifeless, death.’ This stark difference underscores the importance of the red color in conveying the painting’s vitality and emotional depth. Further analysis of participants’ perceptions of colors, moods, and lighting supports these findings. The original image was described using terms that denote vibrancy and richness, such as ‘bright, brilliant’ and ‘natural, clear.’ In contrast, the knockout image was perceived as ‘dull, flat,’ indicating a significant reduction in perceived vibrancy and emotional engagement. The mood and atmosphere evoked by the original image were predominantly ‘cheerful, happy’ and ‘energetic, exciting,’ which contrasts sharply with the ‘calm, content,’ ‘depressed, miserable,’ ‘bored, lifeless’ responses elicited by the knockout image. This shift highlights the red color’s role in creating a dynamic and emotionally engaging atmosphere. Differences in lighting perceptions further emphasize the impact of the red color where the knockout image was seen as “dark, dim,” suggesting that the red color contributes to the painting's perceived brightness and brilliance. This contrasts with the original painting’s description, highlighting the “warm, yellow” and “sunny, brilliant” leveraging the gold leaf used by Klimt, thus enhancing its overall impact.

Additionally, Klimt’s use of the mosaic style in ‘The Kiss’ contributes significantly to its visual and symbolic impact. This technique involves using small tiles to create large images, characterized by bright colors, regular and repetitive patterns, and gold foil. The mosaic style, reminiscent of the 6th-century depiction of Empress Theodora in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, enhances the symbolic representation of colors, particularly red. Klimt’s visit to Ravenna deeply impressed him, influencing his transition from traditional realism to abstract representation.7 In contrast to blending color pigments, the use of mosaics uses the viewers eyes to blend colors. This additive color mixture is the process of combining light beams of different colors before they reach the eye thus making colors appear more vibrant due to the optical blending.25 Despite academics ignoring Klimt’s virtuosos use of color and composition and being accused of presenting unclear ideas through unclear forms, Klimt discarded the three-dimensional realism of his earlier works in favor of the mosaic technique, which he used not only to add vibrant color but also to convey symbolic meaning.26 Through this method, Klimt effectively integrated scientific symbolism into his art, using the mosaic style to portray the interplay between color, emotion, and scientific principles.

In ‘The Kiss,’ the use of red in the woman’s dress, lips, and cheeks, vividly expresses the color of blood inside her body and running under her skin. This method aligns with common artistic practices aimed at creating a vivid and dynamic visual impact. The external use of red, carefully positioned on the woman’s clothing, reinforces the symbolic significance of blood as a source of life and vitality. By employing the additive and subtractive blending methods,27 Klimt creates a rich, textured surface that captures the viewer’s attention and conveys deeper scientific and physiological meanings. The red in the woman’s dress serves as a powerful symbol of life, energy, and the essential vitality that blood represents, further aligning with the study’s findings on the psychological impact of color. This integration of the mosaic style with scientific symbolism underscores the profound intersection of art and science in Klimt’s work, illustrating how contemporary biomedical discoveries can inform and enhance our interpretation of artistic expressions.

The potential for artificial intelligence (AI)-based tools in the scientific analysis of artworks like ‘The Kiss’ is considerable. AI has already demonstrated its power to uncover artistic techniques, styles, and even identify potential deviations from an artist’s typical methods. High-resolution imaging combined with AI could provide insights into brush strokes, pigments, and compositional details that may be invisible to the human eye.28,29 For instance, neural networks trained on artworks have been shown to identify artists’ techniques and detect deviations, potentially revealing which parts were completed by assistants.30 This method could similarly be applied to Klimt’s works, offering insights into his artistic process.

A notable application of AI is the Google Arts & Culture Lab’s recreation of Klimt’s lost Faculty Paintings.31 These works, destroyed during World War II, were restored using AI algorithms that analyzed Klimt’s other colored works to estimate the colors of the monochrome photos that survived. This project demonstrates AI’s potential in art restoration by reconstructing lost masterpieces with remarkable accuracy.

Additionally, AI tools could analyze the red disc-shaped elements we hypothesize represent red blood cells. Computer vision algorithms could measure their shape, size, and distribution, comparing this data to known red blood cell properties. Visual language models trained on art historical texts and images could also generate scholarly descriptions of these elements, augmenting expert analysis and revealing new interpretations,32 complementing human expertise. As von Davier et al.28 demonstrated, differences often exist between machine and human perceptions of art, making a human-in-the-loop approach—where art historians interpret and contextualize AI-generated insights— the most effective method.33 Future research could explore how AI analysis aligns with audience perceptions of artworks like ‘The Kiss,’ providing insights into what resonates with human viewers versus what is most salient to AI. While AI offers powerful tools, its true potential lies in enhancing, not replacing, traditional scholarship.

While the demographic skew of our participant sample, with 69.3% female and the majority aged between 30–49 years, may limit the generalizability of our findings, it is reflective of the typical demographic profile of visitors at the UiAF, as evidenced by historical attendance data from 2021 to 2024. Consequently, our results may primarily represent the perceptions of this specific visitor group, and caution should be exercised when extrapolating these findings to a broader population.

In conclusion, the red doughnut shape discs appear to be a stylish design for the RBC in this study. The removal of the RBC-like patterns from ‘The Kiss’ significantly modified participants’ perceptions, highlighting the crucial role of the red color in conveying the painting’s vitality, emotional depth, and symbolic meaning. This study contributes to our understanding of the interplay between art and science, demonstrating how contemporary biomedical discoveries can enhance our interpretation of artistic works. Future research could explore similar modifications in other artworks to further elucidate the role of color in art perception.

Appendix 1

Twenty-question participant questionnaire

This table displays the responses from a 20-question participant questionnaire designed to assess perceptions of image vibrancy and emotional engagement. Participants rated the original and modified image using descriptive terms.

The questionnaire was accessed via QR code on the participants’ own mobile phone through google forms.

Participants were recruited in person after a short verbal explanation by one of the authors and signing of a paper consent form.