Nanotechnology in the manufacturing of sustainable food packaging: a review

Abstract

At present, there is an escalating concern among consumers regarding the spoilage and safety of food items. Furthermore, the packaging materials used within the packaging industry are typically unsustainable food packaging. To confront this significant challenge, nanotechnology may offer a feasible alternative to standard packaging practices. Several naturally derived polymers are capable of substituting petrochemical-based polymers. The application of biopolymers has demonstrated an ability to prolong the shelf life of food items. However, these materials frequently exhibit limited functionality. The incorporation of nanomaterials can significantly enhance the capabilities of these films. Furthermore, the fields of nanotechnology and food packaging are trending areas of research that hold promise for addressing various challenges within the packaging sector. Integrating nanomaterials into food packaging materials yields significant advantages relative to traditional packaging approaches. It contributes to enhanced food quality and safety, provides consumers with insights into their dietary practices, enables the repair of packaging tears, and increases the longevity of food storage. Incorporating various nanomaterials into biobased films has gained prominence in sustainable food packaging. This review explores the general overview of the historical perspective of nanotechnology. In addition, we addressed the various kinds of nanomaterials involved in food packaging. The functions of nanomaterials in food packaging applications are briefly reviewed. The compilation and discussion highlight the nanotechnology for safe, sustainable, and satisfiable food packaging. Finally, the toxicity, safety, and future trends of the nanomaterials in sustainable food packaging were briefly summarized. This review underscores the necessity of nanotechnology in sustainable food packaging.

Article Highlights

• Exploration of potential prospects of nanotechnology in sustainable food packaging.

• Emphasizing the functionality of nanomaterials for safe, sustainable, and satisfactory food packaging.

• The migration and toxicity of nanoparticles should be examined before incorporation into food packaging.

Introduction

In light of the recent rapid growth of the global population, the food industry must meet escalating demand. Around 9.6 billion people are estimated to exist on Earth in 2050, meaning the demand for food would rise by 70% to 100%. Postharvest fruit and vegetable security and availability, as well as technological and scientific challenges in food science, are critical to human civilization [1, 2]. The global coronavirus pandemic has created a concerning scenario for the agrifood supply chain, specifically about fresh fish. Storage or preservation is the last and most important stage in the worldwide fresh fruit vegetable supply chain [3]. Food can easily get contaminated by chemical, physical, and biological pollutants and spoiled since it is a perishable commodity [4]. The health of the people may be at risk due to certain contaminants. It is essential to preserve the supply with less food loss, that presents an encounter to the state of sustainable technologies today.

On the other hand, the packaging of food materials is increasingly using petroleum-based, non-biodegradable materials and plastics, which are bad for the environment because of improper disposal practices. The three main categories of traditional postharvest fruit vegetable [5] preservation techniques are physical, chemical, and biological. These techniques primarily include coating preservation, chemical handling, gas-control technology, and temperature-controlled storage. Numerous investigation have been directed to resolve and address these problems but, these technologies have various drawbacks that prevent them from keeping up with the current state of the global supply chain [6].

To improve crucial factors like the safety, quality, and shelf life of food items, the food packaging industry is continuously searching for new and innovative technology. The key purpose of packaging is to shield food items from the harmful and exterior environmental factors as insects, dust, filth, heat, light, oxygen, moisture, and enzymes. Furthermore, food items are protected from outside damage by packaging, which also acts as a barrier, resists tampering, and draws consumers' attention to the nutritional content of the product. Enzyme activity in food products prevents spoilage, increases sensitivity, and enhances sensitivity during storage, transport, and distribution, while also providing convenience, product traceability, and tampering detection [7, 8].

It is thought that developments in nanotechnology could help the food sector overcome all of the problems of using traditional food packaging techniques. Food packaging materials have improved mechanical physicochemical properties, barrier qualities, moisture stability, flexibility, and durability, through the integration of functional nanoparticles (NPs) into biopolymer matrices [9]. Additionally, the blending enhances the antimicrobial, antioxidant, UV protection, and protects food against internal and external contaminants such as small organic molecules, water vapor, moisture, germs, dust, vibrations, mechanical shocks, and gases [10]. nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary field of research that deals with the creation, manipulation, characterization, and manufacture of structures with suitable dimensions ranging from 1 to 100 nm are all included in the multidisciplinary field of nanotechnology within science [11, 12].

Nanomaterials can now be created with unique and improved physicochemical properties from a variety of sources and employed in a wide range of applications, such as drug delivery, food packaging, environment remediation, energy storage devices like super-capacitors, fuel cells, batteries, hydrogen evolution reaction, drug delivery, and other biomedical applications [13–15]. Nanoparticles are also extensively used in food processing, developing functional packaging, extending shelf life, ensuring food safety, and food microbiology for detecting pathogens in food. It is a new field that, when applied correctly, has the possibility to completely transform the food processing and packaging sector [16, 17]. It is anticipated that the finding of newer materials will significantly benefit industries like agriculture, food production and processing, packaging, distribution, storage, and the use of biosensors for contaminant detection.

Food packaging has made use of nanomaterials in the form of nanofibers, nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and nanoplates. The risk of food deterioration and nutritional loss during storage is removed by using nano packaging, the use of nanofillers enhances their good antibacterial and self-cleaning properties, as well as their good mechanical, thermal, barrier properties, self-cleaning features, and water resistance [18]. Recently, a variety of nanomaterials have been used as additions to food packaging materials, including copper NPs, titanium dioxide NPs, zinc oxide NPs, silver NPs, carbon dots, melanin NPs, sulfur NPs, nanoemulsions, and nanoclays, etc.

Combining the use of nanomaterials with traditional preservation techniques can significantly lessen the constraints of currently available preservation technologies [19–21]. Additionally, the majority of nanofillers for food packaging materials have inherent antibacterial properties that can eradicate harmful bacteria and stop the spoiling of food that is packed in nanocomposite films extending the shelf life of food items. Furthermore, the food oxidation triggered by the UV radiation is retarded by the nanocomposite film due to UV-light barrier characteristics [19]. Toxins and pesticides can be found using packaging that uses nanosensors to detect their presence. Additionally, they can prolong the shelf life of products by the release of compounds such as antioxidants, enzymes, nutraceuticals, perfumes, and flavors [22]. Therefore, it is essential to create inexpensive, safe, simple, sustainable, and environmentally friendly preservation technologies to maintain the original flavor and appearance, prolong the shelf life, and even increase the commercial value of postharvest foods.

Ensuring food security by reducing food loss and improving the efficiency of food systems, including better preservation and packaging technologies, directly supports the global fight against hunger. Encouraging innovation in industries such as food packaging aligns with this goal, fostering the development of new materials and technologies (such as nanotechnology) that enhance food safety, sustainability, and efficiency. Reducing waste and promoting sustainable production practices are central to this goal. Nanotechnology and biodegradable packaging can minimize food spoilage and reduce reliance on non-biodegradable materials. Innovations that lead to reduced food waste and more sustainable packaging materials help mitigate the environmental impact of food systems, contributing to efforts to address climate change [23–26]. This review discussed the general overview of the historical perspective of nanotechnology. Aim of this review to underscore the pivotal function of nanotechnology in sustainable food packaging. In addition, this review explores nanotechnology for safe, sustainable, and satisfiable food packaging. Finally, the toxicity, safety, and future trends of the nanomaterials in sustainable food packaging were briefly summarized.

Historical timeline of food packaging materials

A concise chronology of food packaging materials is as follows [6, 27, 28]:

• In Prehistoric times: individuals utilized natural resources like animal skins, jute, ceramic, wooden parts, shells, bamboo, glass, grasses, and leaves for the transportation and preservation of food.

• In 3000 B.C., edible food packaging was notably employed in sausage production, where meat was preserved by encasing it within animal intestines. This technique is believed to have been developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia

• By the 1700s, the significance of paper-based packaging in the food industry cannot be overstated, as it is extensively utilized. The application of paper and cardboard for food packaging in this period.

• By the 1800s, the introduction of glass marked, paper, and paperboard, led to their transformation into smaller corrugated boxes, packages, and cartons, utilized for food packaging representing an important advancement in food packaging.

• Early stage of the twentieth century saw the invention of tin cans, which facilitated the storage and movement of food products.

• Middle of the twentieth century, plastic packaging gained prominence owing to its adaptability and economic advantages.

• In the 1960s, polyethylene terephthalate emerged as the first recyclable plastic.

• The 1970s witnessed a growing awareness of the environmental consequences of packaging, prompting the creation of biodegradable materials.

• By the 1990s, the introduction of compostable food packaging resources, derived from renewable resources like sugarcane, and cornstarch marked a significant advancement.

• The 2000s saw further innovations in packaging technology, including the development of intelligent and active packaging systems designed to enhance food preservation and safety.

• In the 2010s, the adoption of sustainable materials, including mushrooms, bamboo, and, seaweed, for food packaging became increasingly prevalent.

• Presently, there is a prominent shift to more sustainable packaging options, encompassing recyclable materials, compostable, and biodegradable, as the food industry seeks to minimize waste products and enhance sustainability.

Nanomaterials involved in the food packaging

The rapid growth of the global population necessitates addressing the dual challenges of ensuring nutritious, high-quality food and achieving zero hunger. A significant contributor to food waste is the limited shelf life of products, often due to external contaminants like moisture, pathogens, and ethylene, which promote microbial growth [29]. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising solution for addressing food preservation challenges, surpassing the limitations of traditional methods. Food packaging films and coatings enhanced with nanomaterials effectively preventing microbial growth and physical deterioration during production, transportation, storage, and handling, thereby significantly extending shelf life. [30].

Effective food packaging prevents microbial damage and physical contamination, ensuring food safety and extended shelf life. Increasing consumer demand for preservative-free food has spurred the development of innovative packaging technologies. Nanotechnology-based materials including nanohybrids, nanoparticles, and nanocomposites, offer significant advantages over traditional packaging due to their high surface-to-volume ratio, driving advancements in coatings, packaging, and diagnostics [31, 32]. Nanoparticles (NPs) are integrated into food packaging to address external factors such as humidity, odors, ethylene, and gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen, enhancing antimicrobial and preservation properties. Nanohybrids are composed of two or more components at the nanoscale that combine distinct properties, such as organic–inorganic hybrids used for enhanced antimicrobial activity and other functional properties [33]. A modern trend includes using non-contact indicators and sensors to monitor environmental conditions, provide data on food quality, safety, and distribution history [34]. Modern food packaging trends include indicators and sensors that monitor environmental conditions, offering insights into food distribution, quality, and safety. Sustainable packaging is crucial for food production which incorporates organic, inorganic, and hybrid nanomaterials (Fig. 1) into polymer matrices and enhancing functionality with safety [35]. A detailed description of each category is provided and highlights the benefits of incorporating nanocomposite packaging films as summarized in Table 1.

Fig. 1.

Several types of nanomaterials are used in sustainable food packaging

Table 1.

Nanoparticles used in nanocomposite, their properties, and applications in food packaging

Types of NPs	Nanoparticles (NPs)	Properties	Applications	References
Inorganic NP	Ag NPs	Mechanical, Strong antimicrobial properties, Barrier properties	The application of these films to fresh produce, meat, and seafood serves to inhibit the proliferation of microbes and enhance the longevity of these products	[36]
	TiO2 NPs	Photocatalytic, Antimicrobial, UV barrier properties	The incorporation of edible coatings serves to enhance the preservation of food. These coatings function by deactivating pathogens and reducing spoilage microorganisms on the surfaces of food goods	[20, 34]
	ZnO NPs	UV blocking, Antimicrobial	It is possible to employ this substance in the production of protective coverings for fruits and vegetables, thereby safeguarding them from microbial contamination and decreasing postharvest losses	[37]
Organic NPs	Carbohydrates (like chitosan, chitin, melanin, lignin NPs, etc.)	Antimicrobial	These compounds produce coatings and edible films, which are subsequently applied to diverse food products to improve their preservation duration	[38]
	Protein NPs (like soy proteins)	Antimicrobial, Antioxidant	good antioxidant activity and significantly improved antimicrobial effects on foodborne pathogens (Listeria monocytogenesm Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Salmonella Typhimurium)	[39]
	Lipid NPs (like nanoliposomes)	Oxygen barrier, Moisture barrier	A diverse range of food items, such as fruits, pastries, and confections, benefit significantly from these coatings. They improve the sensory characteristics and texture of the food	[40, 41]
Hybrid NPs	ZnO-Ag NPs; Zn-Cu NPs, etc	Antimicrobial, thermal stability	Antimicrobial properties of the synthesized films were conducted utilizing both Gram-positive bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli	[21, 42–44]
	Ag-SiO2 NPs with sodium alginate	Controlling the degree of browning, total phenol content, total soluble protein, and weight loss,	Prevent microbial growth	[45]

Inorganic nanomaterials

Inorganic nanomaterials originate from various sources such as metals, metal oxides, ceramics, or minerals, and are characterized by their remarkable stability, mechanical strength, and electronic characteristics. Typical examples encompass AgNPs, AuNPs, ZnO NPs, TiO_2, etc. The incorporation of silver (Ag), which is known for its bacteriostatic qualities, gold (Au), zinc (Zn), and metal oxide-derived nanomaterials such as zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO₂), iron oxide (Fe₃O₄), and magnesium oxide (MgO) serves to improve the properties of conventional packaging materials [46–48]. This approach has gained substantial interest in the field of food management, largely due to the resistance of materials to unpredictable processing conditions and their significant effectiveness in combating foodborne pathogens. Inorganic NPs possess the capability to inhibit bacterial proliferation in packaging applications. The integration of NPs (as nanofillers) with biopolymer-based packaging systems can lead to a reduction in waste generation during the packaging process. Nanofillers play a crucial role in creating effective UV protection and oxygen barriers through layered coatings in polymer films.

Commonly utilized inorganic NPs in packaging include materials such as ZnO-NPs, Au-NPs, CuO-NPs, Ag-NPs, and TiO₂-NPs [30, 49]. The application of these materials in packaging not only enhances food systems but also improves their physicochemical and functional characteristics to protect food quality, extend shelf life, and maintain freshness. This application is involved in decelerating food spoilage, thereby extending shelf life while also preserving or enhancing food quality and safety. The incorporation of nanofillers (ZnO, Au-NPs, TiO₂-NPs, CuO-NPs, and Ag-NPs), plasticizers, and antimicrobial agents, can effectively functionalize these metal-based nanocomposite packaging [50, 51]. The unique physical and chemical characteristics of metal-based NPs, including their extensive surface area and inherent antimicrobial properties, render them valuable not only as conventional packaging materials but also as functional components when integrated into biopolymer matrices [52, 53]. This study explores several inorganic nanomaterials in detail.

Ag nanoparticles

AgNP represents one of the most extensively utilized and researched antimicrobial agents, demonstrating efficacy against a broad spectrum of both commensal and pathogenic bacteria, such as both Gram-negative and Gram-positive strains, across various applications. Additionally, these films exhibited reduced water vapor permeability, solubility, and thickness, alongside notable antimicrobial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli [54]. Recent advancements have seen the integration of AgNPs with various biopolymers, like cellulose, chitosan, and starch to generate antimicrobial packaging films. Prior studies have concentrated on the development of polymer-based films for food packaging, revealing that the inclusion of these AgNPs enhances multiple characteristics when compared to traditional films [55]. The AgNP-coated films demonstrated increased flexibility, transparency, surface roughness, and the formation of spherical clusters. Apart from exhibiting antimicrobial properties, AgNPs also improve several other characteristics, such as decreasing water vapor permeability, strengthening mechanical properties, and acting as freshness indicators [56].

In light of this, AgNP, an inorganic NP, stands out as a noteworthy candidate for the preservation of the freshness of food items over an extended period. The antimicrobial action of AgNPs occurs through three primary mechanisms: first, they penetrate the outer membrane; second, they adhere to the inner membrane, leading to gradual destabilization of the cell; and third, they infiltrate the cell, binding to sulphur and phosphorus groups in DNA and proteins, which ultimately results in structural alterations [7, 57]. Furthermore, silver ions released from AgNPs disrupt metabolic pathways within bacterial cells. When applied to fruit coatings, these AgNP-coated films effectively delayed ripening and preserved quality and shelf life, in contrast to uncoated fruits, which showed greater wilting and wrinkling. AgNPs are predominantly utilized due to their remarkable antibacterial properties, minimal toxicity, and significant thermal stability [56, 58]. Numerous investigations have explored the integration of AgNPs with various materials. One notable study demonstrated the combination of AgNPs with chitosan/carbon spheres, resulting in the formation of an antibacterial layer [4]. This interaction, characterized by electrostatic forces and the filling behavior at the micro-nanometer scale, significantly enhanced the swelling capacity, solubility, mechanical properties, and overall characteristics of chitosan-based nanocomposite films.

ZnO nanoparticles

ZnO NPs possess a variety of morphologies and a greater surface-to-volume ratio, that combined with their capacity to inhibit microbial growth and provide UV protection, positions them as promising agents in polymer matrices for food preservation. Studies have shown that ZnO NPs exhibit enhanced antimicrobial efficacy against Salmonella aureus, Bacillus atrophaeus, and E. coli when related to other metal oxide NPs [5]. Additionally, ZnO NPs can produce substantial quantities of H₂O₂ under UV irradiation leading to oxidative stress that is harmful to bacterial cells. The interest in ZnO NPs among researchers is also attributed to their ability to decrease the permeability of gases such as CO₂ and O₂, as well as water vapor, and to mitigate lipid oxidation triggered by UV exposure [59, 60]. ZnO can absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, and its nano form can demonstrate antibacterial effects through the generation of Zn²⁺ ions within microbial environments. This process has a profound impact on amino acid metabolism and disrupts the enzymatic systems of microbes.

Primarily, the release of Zn²⁺ ions is influenced by two key factors [37, 61]: (i) the chemical properties of the surrounding media of NPs, such as duration of exposure, pH, and the existence of other particles, and (ii) the physicochemical features of the NPs, which include porosity, morphology, particle size, and concentration. It exhibits unique physical and chemical properties that render it appropriate for numerous applications, including packaging materials, biomaterials, and photovoltaic testing. These characteristics encompass antibacterial, antifungal, and UV barrier capabilities, a broad absorption spectrum for radiation, a wide energy band gap, a high electrochemical coupling constant, and notable excitonic binding energy [19, 62]. The preservation of meat quality is greatly enhanced by ZnO NPs, which inhibit the growth of microbes and prevent the oxidation of both lipids and proteins. Furthermore, the incorporation of ZnO NPs into polyvinyl alcohol films for packaging purposes has been shown to enhance shelf life and the freshness of food products by maintaining oxygen transmission rates, providing a UV-blocking effect, and reducing water permeability [63]. The application of ZnO NPs in food packaging, that is derived from synthetic processes or plant-based synthesis, presents an environmentally friendly and promising alternative for the meat industry [64].

TiO₂ nanoparticles

TiO₂ plays an important role in the food packaging sector due to its extensive properties that meet essential criteria for packaging materials. These properties include antimicrobial activity, gas-barrier capabilities, antioxidant capabilities, photocatalytic activity, biocompatibility, low toxicity, and barriers to ultraviolet radiation, in addition to functioning as both ethylene and oxygen scavengers which collectively enhance the shelf life of fresh food [20, 47]. Studies have highlighted that the antimicrobial properties of TiO₂ branch from the generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) such as hydroxyl radicals, O₂ and H₂O₂. These NPs interact with the proteins present in bacterial cell walls and membranes leading to bacterial death [34]. TiO₂ NPs exhibit exceptional antimicrobial, ethylene scavenging, and UV shielding properties, coupled with a high degree of compatibility with numerous biopolymers, making them highly suitable for the formulation of active food packaging materials. The introduction of TiO₂ NPs into a biopolymer for the production of composite films enhances their photocatalytic performance, antimicrobial properties, and ability to adsorb ethylene gas [65].

Nanoclay

The application of polymer nanoclay as a reinforcing agent in films and coatings significantly bolsters their resistance to water vapor and gases, in addition to enhancing their physical characteristics. Moreover, nanoclay is essential for prolonging the shelf life of food products while maintaining their quality [30]. Nanoclays are naturally occurring materials characterized by their plate-like geometry, low specific gravity, high aspect ratios, and soft structural properties. When incorporated into a polymer matrix, they significantly enhance barrier performance, as well as chemical, physical, and mechanical properties [66]. A variety of modification techniques for nanoclays allow for the optimization of their characteristics in film packaging applications. This layered clay, consisting of hydrated silicate and alumina, is particularly effective in reinforcing food packaging. The capacity of this material to expand and become more pliable enhances its appeal in the realm of food packaging design [66].

Additionally, the creation of oil-resistant paper utilizing a chitosan/montmorillonite composite coating represents a significant advancement in this field. The nanocomposite films derived from montmorillonite exhibited notable enhancements in ultraviolet resistance, water vapor barrier capabilities, moldability, and stiffness [67]. Additionally, these films showed improved antimicrobial efficacy against S. aureus and E. coli, indicating their suitability for food packaging applications. In the formulation of films incorporating chitosan, essential oils, and montmorillonite, the initial incorporation of montmorillonite promotes the development of films with superior mechanical strength, attributed to the exfoliation of montmorillonite that bolsters the compact nanocomposite framework [68].

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical tubes made of rolled graphite sheets (carbon) at the nanoscale level, possessing unique chemical and mechanical properties. They are primarily categorized into two types: single-walled nanotubes, which are composed of a single layer of atoms, and multi-walled nanotubes, which consist of several concentric cylindrical layers [69]. These nanotubes are utilized within polymer matrices, where they perform critical roles, particularly as antimicrobial agents and as intelligent sensors that enable communication between perishable food products and consumers, effectively signalling impending spoilage [69]. The ability to manipulate carbon atoms to form various allotropes and phases has led to the identification of numerous structures exhibiting distinct properties. CNTs are highly sought after due to their exceptional electrical conductivity for smart packaging applications, remarkable mechanical strength for improved durability, and excellent barrier properties to enhance shelf life [70].

These nanoparticles are often integrated with polymers or metals to enhance their applicability across diverse fields and environments. The materials produced demonstrate markedly improved properties. The production of composites consisting of carbon NPs (C-NPs) and tannic acid with poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) was achieved through a solution casting method [71]. In this composite structure, C-NPs are employed as the filler, while tannic acid acts as a cross-linking agent, which contributes to the enhancement of mechanical strength. Additionally, the thermal properties of the composite lead to improved hydrophobicity, an elevated oxygen transfer rate, and a reduction in the rate of water vapor transfer. The compound demonstrated significant antimicrobial effectiveness against foodborne pathogens such as S. aureus and E. coli [72].

Organic nanomaterials

Organic nanomaterials are mainly constituted of carbon-based substances or materials originating from biological systems. These materials exhibit distinct characteristics such as flexibility, biocompatibility, and electrical conductivity. Typical examples encompass starch, cellulose, chitosan, protein, clay, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) etc.[34]. Organic polymer-based nanocomposite systems have garnered significant attention in both academic research and manufacturing sectors. These systems encompass organic biopolymers such as chitosan, starch, cellulose, and alginate, which are derived from living organisms, including plants and animals [73]. Their biodegradable and environmentally friendly characteristics make them particularly valuable, as they are readily available and utilized in the production of nanocomposite for agricultural and food applications. Increasing utilization of natural organic nanomaterials (such as cellulose, chitosan, and protein) in biopolymer-based nanocomposite was observed [18, 74]. The benefits of organic polymer nanocomposites over their inorganic counterparts include their biodegradability, biocompatibility, availability, ease of processing, flexibility, high specific energy and low cost [4]. Despite advancements, challenges persist concerning the migration of nanoparticles and other antimicrobial substances into food-contact materials, potentially leading to short-term health hazards. Encouraging the adoption of biopolymer-based nanocomposites could alleviate environmental problems, including the creation of municipal waste, while also enhancing the longevity of food products [50].

Carbohydrate

The rising interest in carbohydrate-based nanomaterials (such as starch, cellulose, chitosan etc.) within food packaging is attributed to their favorable attributes, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and renewability [75]. These materials are instrumental in formulating sustainable and environmentally responsible packaging solutions that confront the challenges associated with conventional plastics. Starch is classified as a polymer composed of glucose units, interconnected by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is predominantly found in various sources such as grains, vegetables, and fruits. Currently, starch-based nanocomposite packaging is formulated using a combination of starch and other polymers, including chitosan, whey protein, gelatin, and cellulose, to enhance mechanical characteristics [76]. As a result, the development of packaging materials incorporating starch (nano form), and has significantly improved food quality, tensile strength, shelf life, barrier properties, and modulus of elasticity [77].

The chitin is recognized as the second most natural polysaccharide classified as an amino-polysaccharide polymer, primarily sourced from crustaceans, insects, and the cell walls of fungi. Its antioxidant capabilities and antibacterial action against a wide spectrum of pathogenic microorganisms have piqued the interest of researchers, prompting investigations into its use as a highly effective food packaging material [78]. The conversion of chitin to chitosan can occur through two different approaches: chemical deacetylation and enzymatic deacetylation. Derived from renewable sources, chitosan is a biodegradable polymer that serves as a sustainable alternative in the production of environmentally conscious materials. Its antibacterial properties and significant biocompatibility contribute to its value in food packaging applications [79, 80].

Cellulose can be readily extracted from the walls of plant cells. Given the widespread availability of polymers, cellulose serves as an economically viable raw material, sourced from a variety of agricultural byproducts, including fruits, vegetables, and the stalks of cotton and, rice as well as forestry waste. Generally, cellulose NPs (Ce-NPs) are categorized into three distinct types: (i) Bacterial cellulose NPs (BNC), (ii) Cellulose nanocrystals (Ce-NCs), and (iii) Cellulose nanofibrils (Ce-NF) [81, 82]. Employing Ce-NPs in the development of biodegradable films serves as a practical alternative to standard plastic packaging, addressing ecological challenges and delivering multiple benefits regarding mechanical integrity and health safety. The amalgamation of Ce-NPs with composite or biodegradable films not only boosts tensile strength but also improves the overall physical attributes while decreasing water vapor transmission [83, 84].

Protein nanoparticles

The improvement of barrier characteristics and mechanical strength against external influences allows protein NPs within polymer matrices to function as effective active packaging materials for perishable food items. The incorporation of peanut protein NPs into films made from soy protein and corn starch results in enhanced thermal stability, improved mechanical properties, and increased resistance to water vapor [34]. Protein NPs function as essential building blocks with diverse roles in biological processes and food formulations, and they are widely found in nature. Drawing inspiration from natural proteins, researchers in food science have created opportunities to engineer distinctive and predictable nanoparticles by adjusting environmental conditions to promote protein self-assembly [85]. Zein and casein derived from corn and milk respectively, have emerged as prominent examples of nanostructured food proteins in recent studies. Both casein and zein contribute to the functional and beneficial aspects of food, while also serving as a structural framework that enhances food stability [86, 87]. There is a growing interest among food scientists in the design and development of functional nanoparticles aimed at improving the aesthetic and textural qualities of food products and their packaging.

The development of natural antimicrobial substances as food additives has gained prominence, leading to their widespread application in prolonging food shelf life [67]. Cross-bonds between disulfide bonds, hydrogen, and amino acids are determined by the polarity and distribution of amino acids, which can affect the ability to make protein-based films. There are two types of proteins utilized to make protein-based packaging films: animal proteins (collagen, etc.) and plant proteins, especially those of the groups Leguminaceae (beans), Graminacea (maize, wheat, barley, rice, etc.), and Asteraceae (sunflower) [88]. Constructing nanostructures from food proteins to serve as nanocarriers is a promising method for improving the bioavailability and bioactivity of water-soluble stabilizers for nutrients that are poorly soluble or hydrophobic [51].

Lipid nanoparticles

The improvement of barrier and functional characteristics in polymers can be achieved through the application of lipid NPs, which are derived from a variety of sources including animal and plant fats, fatty acids, acylglycerols, and waxes, and are processed into nanoscale formats. Recent investigations have revealed that lipid nanostructured materials exhibit numerous advantageous properties that can significantly enhance food packaging attributes [40]. Specifically, research has shown that the addition of solid-lipid NPs (SLNs) to xanthan gum leads to substantial enhancements in water vapor permeability, mechanical strength, and thermal stability of the resulting films. The incorporation of candeuba wax SLNs into xanthan gum significantly improved the mechanical properties of the films, as evidenced by enhanced tensile elastic modulus, strength, and elongation. This composite system also prolonged the shelf life of tomatoes stored for 26 days at 12 °C by preserving their firmness and regulating key parameters such as acidity, pH, antioxidant, soluble solids, and color changes, characteristics [89].

Furthermore, the integration of SLNs into protein-based edible films, specifically those made from β-lactoglobulin, resulted in a notable reduction in water vapor permeability while facilitating the control of mass transfer. The incorporation of beeswax-based SLNs into xanthan gum yielded similar findings for food packaging applications [90]. The formulated coating effectively curtailed weight loss and decay rates, preserved the firmness of the strawberries, and minimized color changes, ultimately prolonging the shelf life of the fruit during storage as long as 21 days at 4 °C [91].

Hybrid nanomaterials

Hybrid (combined) nanomaterials are composed of both inorganic and organic ingredients, enabling the integration of the beneficial properties inherent to each category. These materials are frequently customized for targeted applications in fields such as nanomedicine, electronics, catalysis, and environmental technologies [92]. Notable examples include: metal–organic, organic–inorganic, etc. The development of hybrid nanocomposite films as promising antimicrobial biomaterials suitable for food packaging applications [93]. These films benefit from a compact microstructure and a robust inter-fibril network, enabling them to endure significant external tensile forces while also demonstrating remarkable thermal stability and barrier properties. The combination of AgNPs and ZnO NPs serves as effective nanofillers and functional additives, enhancing the mechanical and physicochemical properties and advance the sustainability of the packaging film [94].

The incorporation of nanofillers, such as NPs, can substantially improve the characteristics of packaging, including mechanical strength, resistance to gases and water, and microbial barriers. The integration of ZnO NPs and Ag NPs within starch matrices enhances both the antimicrobial properties and material effectiveness of the films [95]. The ZnO NPs and SiO₂ NPs within gelatine/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) demonstrated superior efficacy compared to traditional bioplastic packaging materials, and untreated gelatin/PVA composites. This suggests that nanocomposite films may enhance the shelf life of chilled shrimp by minimizing chemical usage while providing a safe, cost-effective, novel, and efficient packaging solution. These nanoparticles enhance the mechanical and barrier properties of the food packaging materials, thereby contributing to the prolongation of food shelf life [96].

Function of nanoparticles in sustainable food packaging

Conventional packaging materials, which are mostly composed of polymers and typically have certain drawbacks when used only to package fresh fruit flies. Over 350 million tonnes of plastic are manufactured worldwide each year, with food packaging accounting for a significant portion of traditional plastic usage [97]. This puts a significant strain on the environment. One approach that shows promise for addressing the drawbacks of conventional polymeric packaging made of plastic is the development of nanocomposites. Due to its many uses and potential applications, nanopackaging has been utilized extensively for the sustainable conservation of fresh fruit, and vegetables, as illustrated in Table 1. The application of nanotechnology in food technology is extensive and multifaceted. The NPs are commonly applied in two principal ways: they can be integrated directly into food items or used to disinfect food and packaging materials [98]. Within the food processing industry, NPs fulfill several roles, such as enhancing flavors, providing color, improving texture through gelling, preventing clumping as anticaking agents, serving as preservatives, and functioning as nanocarriers for the delivery of nutrients and other beneficial substances [99]. Table 2 represents the function of nanotechnology in the formation of sustainable food packaging.

Table 2.

The function of Nanotechnology in the advances of sustainable food packaging

Function of NPs	NPs Used	Functions	References
Mechanical	Nanoclays, nanocellulose, nanochitin, chitosan NPs, metal NPs	Improvement in durability and flexibility of packaging materials	[66, 100]
Thermal Insulation	Nanoclays	Improved thermal insulation properties of packaging materials	[101]
Oxygen Scavenging	Iron NPs, Titanium Dioxide NPs	Removal of oxygen from the packaging environment to prevent oxidation	[102, 103]
Moisture Control	Silica NPs, nanoclays	Regulation of moisture levels within the packaging to prevent spoilage	[66, 104]
UV-Light Blocking	Titanium Dioxide NPs, Zinc Oxide NPs, Melanin, Lignin	Protection of food products from UV light exposure	[55, 69]
Gas Permeability Control	Nanoclays, nanocellulose, Titanium Dioxide NPs	Control of gas exchange to maintain food freshness. Enhanced resistance to moisture, gases (e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide), and UV light	[105–107]
Antimicrobial	Nanosilver, nanocopper, Zinc Oxide NPs, Titanium Dioxide NPs	Prevention of microbial contamination to prolong shelf life and ensure food safety	[108, 109]
Biodegradability	Nanocellulose, PLA with nanocellulose	Development of packaging materials that are biodegradable and compostable	[75, 110]
Antioxidant	Silver and Zinc Oxide NPs	Antioxidant NPs can neutralize free radicals, preventing oxidative damage to the food product	[102]
Smart Packaging	Carbon quantum dot, nanosensors (e.g., carbon nanotubes)	Integration of sensors and indicators to monitor food quality, freshness, and safety	[111, 112]

Nanotechnology for safe, sustainable, and satisfiable food packaging

The significant advantages presented by nanotechnology but attention must also be directed towards the potential disadvantages of utilizing nanomaterials in the packaging of fruits and vegetables. To date, there is insufficient evidence to assert that handling materials developed through nanotechnology are either safer or more dangerous than their conventional counterparts in the preservation of postharvest produce [113]. Therefore, green nanotechnology is viewed as both a groundbreaking and eco-conscious approach, encouraging future studies to address and minimize the risks associated with products in the field of nanoscience. In this context, the review outlines three viewpoints regarding the development of environmentally friendly sustainable technologies for postharvest fruits and vegetables. The implementation of safe nanomaterials calls for the standardization of NPs usage to promote sustainable practices in food preservation.

To ensure proper regulation of NPs in this application, a research strategy is urgently needed, with three primary goals identified for achievement. This research aims to achieve three primary goals: (a) to formulate standardized guidelines for the characterization and quantification of NPs in postharvest fruits and vegetables through the use of standardized analytical techniques; (b) to assess consumer exposure to NPs within the framework of postharvest food; and (c) to establish a coherent toxicity assessment protocol for NPs on human health and environmental impact. In terms of sustainable nano-application, green nanotechnology advocates for the environmentally conscious use of nanomaterials in the storage processes of postharvest food. The production of green nano-products should ideally involve natural materials, such as plant secondary metabolites, which offer the advantages of being environmentally friendly, economically viable, biodegradable, and highly bioactive.

The implementation of nano-products in the preservation of fresh fruits and vegetables requires the recycling of leftover waste materials and the creation of new nano-product formulations. Additionally, the incorporation of specific plant extracts and essential oils should be advocated to augment the functional characteristics of nano-products, which can contribute to better quality preservation and prolonged shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables throughout their storage period. Ensuring satisfactory quality is paramount, as highlighted by the aforementioned approaches.

It is essential to prioritize safety, sustainable production practices, and the application procedures associated with nano-products. Specifically, various nano-products, including nano-packaging, nano-coating, and nano/micro-bubbles, can be utilized to preserve the quality and prolong the shelf life of postharvest fresh vegetables during storage [40, 114]. Additionally, a range of nano-sensors can be employed to monitor quality and safety in real-time, providing alerts to production operators and markets, thereby enabling flexible adjustments in postharvest handling and shelf life to guarantee the availability of fresh foods [82, 92]. The significant advantages of nanomaterials for producing safe, sustainable, and satisfiable food packaging are shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

Function of nanomaterials for safe, sustainable, and satisfiable food packaging

Toxicity effect of the nanoparticles

Food safety has risen to prominence as a critical public health issue on an international level, with consumers expressing heightened concerns regarding the safety of their food. Statistics reveal that foodborne microbial diseases result in more than 20 million recorded deaths annually worldwide [115]. The overarching aim of global food safety efforts is to ensure that consumers are not harmed during the preparation and consumption of food. The judicious implementation of nanotechnology could significantly transform food packaging practices. Research has consistently demonstrated that individuals are generally more amenable to the use of nanomaterials in food packaging rather than in the food items themselves.

Nanomaterial migration to the environment and subsequent human exposure by inhalation and skin penetration may result from the use of nanomaterials in the food industry, agriculture, cosmetics, and personal healthcare systems. The possible pathways are as follows (Fig. 3): (a) ingestion from consuming nanocomposite-packaged food; (b) leaching of nanomaterials from nano-packaging materials or nanosensing elements into the food; and (c) disposal of nano-packaging, nanosensors, nanofood in landfills and other also releases into the earth, water, or air can affect people, plants, or wildlife. In the end, the residues from nanoparticles will eventually enter into the human food chain [116, 117]. There are valid concerns regarding the possibility of these nanomaterials migrating into food, which could pose health risks to consumers. Studies focusing on ZnO, Au-NPs, TiO₂-NPs, CuO-NPs and Ag-NPs have shown that these materials can penetrate the bloodstream and, because of their insolubility, may accumulate in organs, resulting in negative health implications [118].

Fig. 3.

Possible routes of exposure of nanomaterials into the environment and humans

(Reproduced from Ref. [121])

The utilization of nanocomposites in food packaging has been associated with the release of trace amounts of particles into food products. This migration was found to be minimal and complied with the safety limits imposed by the European Commission (EC) for nanocomposites [119]. The study indicated that the migration of particles from NPs to food was significantly lower than the EC's established thresholds. The NPs examined included Ag and ZnO. However, it is crucial to highlight that ZnO NPs, even in small quantities, have the potential to cause genotoxicity in epidermal cells [120]. Both the storage duration and temperature of packaging play a critical role in the migration of nanoparticles into food products. Ensuring the retention of quality necessitates the use of suitable materials during the processing and packaging of food. Although the application of nanomaterials in food packaging can significantly enhance its functionality, knowledge regarding particle migration and toxicity is still insufficient [56]. Therefore, it is vital to manage food and food products with extreme care and to package them using materials that are non-toxic, safe, and environmentally responsible.

Future trends

Future trends in the application of nanotechnology for sustainable food packaging are focused on advancing the performance, functionality, and environmental impact of packaging materials.

Key areas of exploration include:

a)Nanotechnology enables the creation of active packaging that can interact with food to maintain freshness. For example, nanoparticles can release antimicrobial agents to prevent spoilage and contamination.

b)Integration of nanotechnology to create intelligent packaging systems that monitor food quality, detect spoilage, and provide real-time information to consumers and manufacturers. For example, nanosensors and indicators for temperature, humidity, or microbial contamination.

c)Research into eco-friendly nanomaterials, such as starch-based Nanoparticles or cellulose nanocrystals, to produce fully biodegradable and compostable packaging, reducing reliance on synthetic polymers.

d)Incorporation of NPs with antimicrobial properties (e.g., zinc oxide, silver, or titanium dioxide) to prevent microbial growth, ensuring food safety and quality.

e)Optimization of nanostructures to improve resistance to gases, moisture, and UV radiation, which can further extend the shelf life of food products.

f)Nanotechnology is being used to enhance the mechanical properties of packaging materials, making them stronger and more durable. This is particularly important for protecting food during transportation and storage.

g)Emphasis on renewable and recycled nanomaterials to reduce environmental impact, alongside advancements in scalable, energy-efficient manufacturing processes for nanotechnology-based packaging.

h)Ongoing studies to assess the safety and migration of nanoparticles from packaging into food, addressing consumer concerns and ensuring compliance with global regulatory standards.

i)Development of hybrid nanomaterials that combine multiple functionalities, such as mechanical strength, thermal stability, and antimicrobial activity, in a single packaging system.

j)Efforts to lower the costs of nanomaterial synthesis and application in packaging, making these technologies more accessible for widespread commercial use.

These trends highlight the potential of nanotechnology to revolutionize the food packaging industry by delivering innovative, sustainable, and efficient solutions for both producers and consumers.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the growing concerns among consumers about food spoilage, safety, and the environmental impact of traditional packaging materials have intensified the need for sustainable alternatives. Nanotechnology offers a viable solution to these challenges, particularly through the use of naturally derived polymers as alternatives to petrochemical-based polymers. While biopolymers can extend the shelf life of food items, their functionality is often limited. The incorporation of nanomaterials into these films can significantly enhance their capabilities, addressing many of the limitations of traditional packaging methods. These nanomaterials not only improve the durability and protective capabilities of packaging films but also contribute to extending food shelf life and ensuring safety. This review has provided an overview of the historical development of nanotechnology in food packaging, discussed various types of nanomaterials used in food packaging, and highlighted their specific function in applications. Additionally, the compilation addresses the critical aspects of toxicity, safety, and future prospects, emphasizing the potential of nanotechnology to revolutionize sustainable food packaging. The environmental impact of packaging waste may be mitigated with the help of biodegradable nanoparticles made from renewable resources. Sustainability remains a driving force behind advancements in nanotechnology-based food packaging, positioning the industry to lead a transition toward an eco-friendly future. The application of nanotechnology in food packaging represents a significant advancement towards achieving safe, sustainable, and efficient packaging solutions. Continued exploration and understanding of the migration and toxicity of nanoparticles are essential to ensure consumer safety and regulatory compliance. The future of nanotechnology in sustainable food packaging looks promising, with the potential to revolutionize the industry by enhancing food preservation, reducing environmental impact, and meeting the evolving needs of consumers.

Abbreviations

NPs

Nanoparticles

Zn

Zinc

Ag

Silver

Au

Gold

C-NPs

Carbon NPs

ZnO

Zinc oxide

Fe₃O₄

Iron oxide

CuO

Copper Oxide

SiO₂

Silicon dioxide

TiO₂

Titanium dioxide

MgO

Magnesium oxide

UV

Ultra Violet

PVA

Polyvinyl alcohol

SLN

Solid-lipid Nanoparticles

Author contributions

SG, SR: supervision and original draft preparation; RKM, AM: writing- review and editing. All authors reviewed the final manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to published the final version of manuscript.

Funding

Not applicable.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Competing interest

The authors declare no competing interests.