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. 2025 Feb 18;32:29. doi: 10.1186/s12929-025-01118-w

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — Changes in skeletal muscle structure and mitophagic flux in IM and RM muscle. A Representative visualization of immobilization and remobilization protocol. B Body mass of control (CTRL), immobilized (IM), and remobilized (RM) mice. C Skeletal muscle mass of tibialis anterior (TA), extensor digitorum longus (EDL), gastrocnemius (GAS), and quadriceps (QUAD) normalized to body mass. D Muscle force-frequency graph from CTRL, IM, and RM mice. E Peak force development derived from force-frequency curve and F fatigue index measurement of EDL (greater value indicates more fatigue-resistance). G Representative immunofluorescent images of muscle from CTRL, IM, and RM mice. Samples were stained to identify myosin heavy chain isoform and fiber membrane: type IIA (green), type IIX (red), type IIB (unstained), and dystrophin (DMD, red). Scale bar indicates 50 μm. H Quantification of mean cross-sectional area (CSA) and I distribution of type IIA, IIX, and IIB fibers. J Representative confocal images of mitophagic flux from muscle of mt-Keima reporter mice. Green fluorescence indicates healthy mitochondria. Red fluorescence indicates degrading mitochondria. Scale bar indicates 50 μm. Quantification of K mitophagic (i.e., red) puncta count per field and L average individual mitophagic puncta size. * p < 0.05 compared to CTRL group. n = 5–8 per group