Table 2.
Regression estimates from the pooled cross-sectional time series analysis of all-cause mortality per 100,000 population
| Variables | Model 1 Estimate (S.E.) | Model 2 Estimate (S.E.) | Model 3 Estimate (S.E.) | Model 4 Estimate (S.E.) | Model 5 Estimate (S.E.) |
| Constant | 949.32*** (45.75) | 1,256.36*** (64.55) | 1,487.51*** (80.04) | 1,548.45*** (91.38) | 1,491.87*** (93.78) |
| Tobacco | 0.03*** (0.01) | 0.03*** (0.01) | 0.02** (0.01) | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 (0.01) |
| Alcohol | 8.59*** (1.49) | 8.59*** (1.50) | 6.56*** (1.46) | 8.03*** (1.46) | 8.61*** (1.52) |
| Fat consumption | 9.44*** (1.66) | 9.83*** (1.91) | 9.83*** (1.91) | 8.46*** (1.96) | |
| Fruit/vegetable consumption | -0.20* (0.08) | -0.03 (0.09) | -0.10 (0.09) | -0.19* (0.09) | |
| Protein consumption | -3.22*** (0.57) | -4.25*** (0.70) | -3.93*** (0.76) | -3.52*** (0.72) | |
| Air Pollution | 0.13 (0.20) | 0.46 (0.25) P = 0.07 | 0.48 (0.26) P = 0.06 | ||
| Collective health expenditure | -72.44*** (18.02) | -68.98*** (18.08) | -48.95* (19.13) | ||
| Healthcare coverage | -1.89*** (0.30) | -1.73*** (0.31) | -1.44*** (0.32) | ||
| DTP immunization | -1.39*** (0.31) | -1.39*** (0.31) | |||
| Measles immunization | -0.88** (0.27) | -0.88** (0.27) | |||
| Elderly | 4.55* (2.26) | 1.47 (2.04) | 0.60 (2.19) | 4.83* (2.19) | 4.87* (2.12) |
| Physician density | -103.65*** (6.34) | -47.81*** (7.52) | -49.04*** (8.07) | -20.57* (8.07) | -3.92 (8.74) |
| Doctor visits | -15.55*** (1.75) | -9.57*** (1.70) | -4.90** (1.80) | -5.31** (1.71) | -3.60* (1.68) |
| GDP per capita | -0.003*** (0.0004) | -0.006*** (0.0005) | -0.006*** (0.0005) | -0.005*** (0.0005) | -0.005*** (0.0005) |
| 1980s fixed effects++ | -60.78*** (9.93) | ||||
| 1990s fixed effects++ | -83.04*** (14.11) | ||||
| F change | - | 38.44# | 15.03# | 26.57# | 17.32# |
| Adjusted R2 | 0.57 | 0.66 | 0.79 | 0.72 | 0.74 |
S.E.: standard error of estimate; *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001; ++decade time effects to eliminate omitted-variable bias due to unobserved heterogeneity with reference to 1970s baseline; #significantly better than preceding model and model 1 (P < 0.000); n = 451