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. 2025 Feb 12;17:1496235. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2025.1496235

Table 3.

Summary of significant findings from studies using graph theory methods to assess connectivity.

1. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) v. Healthy control (HC)
Authors (Year) Connectivity
approach
Analysis
basis
Recording
context
Significant
metric
Significant
bands
Group
effects
Ref.
Choi et al. (2021) PLV Source - WNME Rest - EC Clustering coefficient Alpha1 MCI < HC 21
Beta2 MCI > HC
Das and Puthankattil (2020) WPLI Sensors - avg. regions Rest - EC, EO;
Task - Mental arithmetic
Eccentricity Gamma (task) MCI < HC 23
Leaf Fraction Alpha1 (rest) MCI < HC
Eccentricity,
diameter
Delta, theta, alpha1, alpha2, beta (task, rest) MCI > HC
Betweenness centrality Alpha1, alpha2 (task) MCI > HC
Dattola et al. (2021) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC Network robustness Broadband (1–40 Hz) MCI < HC 24
Duan et al. (2020) Coherence,
PCOR
Sensors -NA Rest - EC Clustering coefficient,
node strength
Theta, alpha1 MCI < HC 26
Resilience Theta MCI < HC
Versatility Alpha2 MCI < HC
Path length Theta, alpha1 MCI > HC§
Betweenness centrality Theta MCI > HC
Franciotti et al. (2019) Granger causality Sensors - pairs Rest - EC Degree, in-degree, out-degree, local efficiency, global efficiency NA MCI < HC 32
Frantzidis et al. (2014) Relative wavelet entropy Sensors - pairs Rest - EC Small worldness,
clustering coefficient, nodal strength & significance ratio (betweenness centrality)
Broadband (>1 Hz) MCI < HC 35
Ioulietta et al. (2020) PCOR Sensors-NA Rest - EC, EO Clustering coefficient, strength Broadband (0.3-75 Hz) MCI < HC 48
Josefsson et al. (2019) JDE Sensors-NA Task - memory Clustering coefficient,
small worldness
Beta MCI < HC 56
Eccentricity Beta MCI > HC
La Foresta et al. (2019) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC Path length 1–40 Hz (Broadband) MCI > HC§ 62
Lazarou et al. (2022) PCOR Sensors-NA Task - visual attention,
memory
Clustering coefficient, strength Broadband (0.3-70 Hz) MCI < HC 63
Li et al. (2021) PSI, DTF Sensors-NA Rest - EC Clustering coefficient,
node degree,
global efficiency
Theta MCI < HC 67
Mammone et al. (2018) PDI Sensors - pairs Rest - EC Path length Broadband (1–40 Hz) MCI > HC§ 70
Clustering coefficient, global efficiency Broadband (1–40 Hz) MCI < HC
Miraglia et al. (2016) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC, EO Small worldness Delta, theta MCI < HC 73
Miraglia et al. (2023) LLC Source - eLORETA Hypervent Global efficiency Alpha1, alpha2 MCI < HC 74
Požar et al. (2020) PLI Sensors - avg. regions Rest - EC Vertex degree, degree divergence, leaf fraction Delta MCI < HC 83
Vertex eccentricity, diameter Delta MCI > HC
Vecchio et al. (2014) LLC Source - sLORETA, eLORETA Rest - EC Clustering coefficient Alpha1 MCI > HC 105
Vecchio et al. (2016) LLC Source - sLORETA, eLORETA Rest - EC Small worldness Delta MCI < HC 106
Vecchio et al. (2021) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC Small worldness Delta, Theta MCI < HC 109
Wei et al. (2015) PSI Sensors - pairs Task - visual attention Clustering coefficient Alpha, beta MCI < HC 115
PSI Sensors - pairs Task - visual attention Path length Alpha, beta MCI < HC§
PSI Sensors - pairs Task - visual attention Small worldness Alpha MCI < HC
Xu et al. (2014) MSC Sensors-NA Rest - EC Clustering coefficient Theta, alpha1, alpha2 MCI < HC 117
Shortest path length Theta, alpha1, alpha2 MCI > HC§
Youssef et al. (2021) Debiased
WPLI
Sensors-NA Rest - EC
(pre-, post-task)
Clustering coefficient,
global efficiency
Theta
(pre-task)
MCI > HC 119
2. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) v. Healthy control (HC)
Authors (Year) Connectivity
approach
Analysis
basis
Recording
context
Significant
metric
Significant
bands
Group
effects
Ref.
Afshari and Jalili (2016) DTF Sensors-NA Rest - EC Global efficiency,
attack tolerance
Alpha, beta AD < HC 1
Local efficiency Alpha, beta AD > HC
Bagattini et al. (2022) PDC Sensors - avg. regions Task - enumeration Divisibility Theta AD > HC 9
Cai et al. (2018) PSI Sensors – pairs, global Rest - EC Cross-frequency, regional synchronization strength, local efficiency, small worldness Delta-theta, delta-alpha, delta-beta AD < HC 14
Global efficiency Delta-alpha, delta-beta AD > HC
Local efficiency Theta-alpha AD < HC
Cai et al. (2020) NIPLV Sensors-NA Rest - EC Clustering coefficient Cross-frequency, beta AD < HC 15
Participation coefficient Cross-frequency, delta (parietal) AD < HC
Participation coefficient Cross-frequency
(frontal), delta
(frontal-central), alpha
AD > HC
Node degree proportion Delta
(posterior)
AD < HC
Node degree proportion Delta (frontal) AD > HC
Cecchetti et al. (2021) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC Path length Theta AD < HC§ 19
Nodal strength, clustering coefficient Alpha2 AD < HC
Nodal strength, local efficiency, clustering coefficient Theta AD > HC
Choi et al. (2021) PLV Source - WNME Rest - EC Clustering coefficient Alpha1 AD < HC 21
Theta AD > HC
Dattola et al. (2021) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC Network robustness Broadband (1–40 Hz) AD < HC 24
Duan et al. (2020) Coherence,
PCOR
Sensors-NA Rest - EC Clustering coefficient,
node strength
Alpha1 AD < HC 26
Resilience Alpha1, alpha2 AD < HC
Betweenness centrality,
versatility
Alpha1, alpha2 AD > HC
Path length Alpha1, alpha2 AD > HC§
Engels et al. (2015) PLI Sensors - avg. regions Betweenness centrality Beta
(posterior)
AD < HC 28
Betweenness centrality Alpha1, alpha2,
beta (anterior)^
AD > HC
Escudero et al. (2016) IPC Sensors-NA Rest - EC Degree centrality,
efficiency
Broadband (0.5-40 Hz) AD < HC 29
Franciotti et al. (2019) Granger causality Sensors - pairs Rest - EC Degree, in-degree, out-degree, local efficiency, global efficiency, out-degree assortativity NA AD < HC 32
Franciotti et al. (2022) MI Sensors-NA Rest - EC Network assortativity Broadband (1-100 Hz) AD < HC
Frantzidis et al. (2014) Relative wavelet entropy Sensors - pairs Rest - EC Small worldness,
clustering coefficient, nodal strength (betweenness centrality)
Broadband (>1 Hz) AD < HC 35
Ioulietta et al. (2020) PCOR Sensors-NA Rest - EC, EO Clustering coefficient, strength Broadband (0.3-75 Hz) AD < HC 48
Jalili (2016) Coherence,
PCOR, PO, SL
Sensors-NA Rest - EC, EO Global & local efficiency, betweenness centrality Alpha AD < HC 49
Assortativity Alpha AD > HC
Jalili (2017) PCOR Sensors - pairs Rest - EC, EO Local efficiency, modularity (EC) Delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma AD < HC 50
Kabbara et al. (2018) PLV Source - WNME Rest - EC Global efficiency Theta AD < HC 57
Integration Theta, alpha1, alpha2 AD < HC
Connector hubs & node vulnerability Broadband (0.1–45 Hz) AD < HC
Clustering coefficient Theta AD > HC
Segregation Theta, alpha1, alpha2 AD > HC
Provincial
hubs
0.1–45 Hz (Broadband) AD > HC
La Foresta et al. (2019) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC Path length Broadband (1–40 Hz) AD > HC§ 62
Clustering coefficient AD < HC
Lazarou et al. (2022) PCOR Sensors-NA Task - visual attention, memory Clustering coefficient, strength, betweenness centrality Broadband (0.3–70 Hz) AD < HC 63
Li et al. (2019) WPLI Source - DBTN Task - WM Degree, clustering coefficient Alpha1, alpha2,
beta
AD < HC 66
Centrality index Alpha1 AD < HC
Degree, clustering coefficient Alpha1, alpha2, beta, Superior temporal - all bands AD > HC
Centrality index Alpha2 AD > HC
Mammone et al. (2018) PDI Sensors - pairs Rest - EC Path length Broadband (1–40 Hz) AD > HC§ 70
Clustering coefficient, global efficiency Broadband (1–40 Hz) AD < HC
Mehraram et al. (2020) WPLI Sensors - avg. regions Rest - EC Clustering coefficient Alpha AD < HC 71
Miraglia et al. (2016) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC, EO Small worldness Delta, theta AD < HC 73
Peraza et al. (2018) PLI Sensors-NA Rest - EC Nodal degree, leaf ratio Alpha AD < HC 81
Smith et al. (2016) WPLI Sensors-NA Rest - EC Clustering coefficient Beta AD < HC 92
Tait et al. (2019) PLF Source - eLORETA Rest - EO Small worldness,
closeness centrality
Theta AD < HC 98
Mean degree, path length Theta AD > HC§
Vecchio et al. (2014) LLC Source - sLORETA, eLORETA Rest - EC Path length Theta AD > HC§ 105
Clustering coefficient Theta, alpha1 AD > HC
Vecchio et al. (2016) LLC Source - sLORETA, eLORETA Rest - EC Small worldness Delta, theta, beta1, beta2 AD < HC 106
Alpha AD > HC
Vecchio et al. (2017) LLC Source - sLORETA, eLORETA Rest - EC Small worldness Delta, theta, beta AD < HC 107
Alpha AD > HC
Vecchio et al. (2018) LLC Source - sLORETA, eLORETA Rest - EC
(pre-, post-task)
Small worldness Alpha2 AD ↓
HC ↑
108
Vecchio et al. (2021) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC Small worldness Delta, theta, beta1, beta2 AD < HC 109
Alpha1, alpha2 AD > HC
Vecchio et al. (2022) LLC Source - eLORETA Rest - EC Small worldness Delta, theta AD < HC 110
Alpha2 AD > HC
Wang et al. (2014) MSC Sensors-NA Rest - EC Clustering coefficient Theta, alpha1, alpha2, beta, gamma AD < HC 112
Global, local efficiency,
small worldness
Delta, theta, alpha1, alpha2, beta, gamma AD < HC
Mean network
connectivity
Theta, alpha2, gamma AD < HC
Path length Delta, theta, alpha1, alpha2, beta, gamma AD > HC§
Yu et al. (2018) PDI Sensors - pairs Rest - EC Global efficiency, clustering coefficient, small worldness Broadband (0.5–30 Hz) AD < HC 120
Yu et al. (2021) Clustering coefficient; Global, local efficiency; nodal, edge between-ness Sensors - pairs Rest - EC, EO Clustering coefficient, global efficiency, local efficiency Broadband (0.5–30 Hz) AD < HC 121
Nodal betweenness, edge betweenness AD > HC

Within-group effects are not shown. †see Supplementary Table S1 for study specifications and technical descriptions; § Greater values on this metric represent lower connectivity; avg = averaged; DTF = directed transfer function; EC = eyes closed; EO = eyes open; Hypervent = hyperventilation; IPC = Imaginary part of coherence; JDE = joint distribution entropy; LLC = lagged linear coherence; LPS = Lagged phase synchronization; MSC = magnitude squared coherence; MI = Mutual information; NA = not available/specified; NIPLV = Normalized imaginary phase locking value; PCOR = Pearson correlations; PDC = partial directed coherence; PDI = Permutation disalignment index; PO = Phase order; PLF = phase locking factor; PLI = phase lag index; PLV = phase locking value; PSLI = phase slope index; PSI = phase synchronization index; Ref = reference number; SL = Synchronization likelihood; WM = working memory; WPLI = weighted phase lag index; WMNE = Weighted minimum norm estimate.