A Cross-Sectional Survey to Measure Attitude, Self-Reported Practice, Levels, Typology, and Determinants of Lifetime Gambling Behaviors Among Undergraduate Students in Higher Training Institutions, Tanzania

Abstract

Lifetime gambling activities and behaviors are considered as potentially addictive behaviors that may impact a student’s performance. According to a survey conducted in Tanzanian’s higher training institutions, for example, 37.2% of sports gamblers were students. This study employed an institutional-based cross-sectional survey in a quantitative research approach to study 374 randomly sampled undergraduate students in higher training institutions in Dodoma region, Tanzania from June to July 2023. Students reported their attitudes, practices, and drivers of gambling activities through interviewer-administered structured questionnaires adopted from previous studies. Results indicate that 374 of 583 potential participants were eligible and surveyed for the study with 100% response rate. Participants’ mean age was 24 years ± 2.79 of which, few of them (34%) had age ranging between 25 and 42 years. Male participants accounted for 69.8% (n = 261). 59.1% of the study participants believed that gambling activities were okay to them of which 47.3% of them were lifetime gamblers; 19.2% moderate-risk lifetime gamblers and 2.5% low-risk lifetime gamblers respectively. Online sports betting (44.5%), coin pusher (29.4%), poll tables (8.0%), and slot machines (6.9%) were the most preferred types of gambling games among students. Age between 17 and 24 years; levels three and four classes, being male; living off-campus; drug abuse; mobile smartphone ownership; exposure to social media platforms and high attitude towards gambling activities were associated significantly with undergraduate students’ gambling practices (p < 0.05). Large-scale institutional-based educational programs about the financial and academic ramifications of gambling among students during their studies may be able to moderate their gambling behaviors.

Introduction

The duration of time that young people take to transition from infancy to adulthood both emotionally and mentally is dictated by their exposure to globalization, which also includes parental approaches, modern lifestyles, peer interactions, migration, immigration, cultural diversity, media, and/or social cohesions (Cleophace, 2021; Millanzi & Sarier, 2023). However, up to this point, gaming activities have influenced undergraduate students by exposing them to potentially compulsive gambling behaviors. To become competent in the sustainable development era, undergraduate students are expected to establish their learning objectives, conduct self-assessments that include an analysis of their strengths and limitations, and disclose their positive, covert actions toward their academic career and life opportunities (Kucuk, 2022). Several scholars have studied the incidence of gambling and compulsive gambling behaviors on a national, regional, and international scale to determine the harm that these behaviors can cause to young people (Donati et al., 2021; Okechukwu, 2022a; Wolfschlag & Håkansson, 2023).

For instance, a study carried out in Canada found that undergraduate students perceived various benefits from completing their higher education training: 65% believed they would be employed in a good career, 56% merely desired the career knowledge, and only 5% completed their education intending to make money and 3% to increase their networking opportunities (Lusambili et al., 2021). University students engage in positive extracurricular activities outside of their coursework, such as volunteering, the arts, and sports like basketball, football, and netball (Mide et al., 2023). However, some of them engage in risky practices like prostitution, drug abuse, lifetime gambling activities, robbery, and/or theft (Llorent-Bedmar et al., 2023). In recent years, lifetime gambling in particular has become more prevalent to the point where it is now highlighted in a public health framework (Abbott, 2020; Kairouz et al., 2017).

Many of the obtainability and adjustments such as hypotheses were supported by other research, which has demonstrated that the raised obtainability of lifetime gambling activities has led to increased participation and increased lifetime gambling addictive behaviors and consequently, to lifetime gambling behaviors among young people (Reith et al., 2019). According to a UK survey, 47% of university students had placed a bet in the past years, which means that 264,000 students gambled during their school life (Sichali et al., 2023). Another UK study found that by using crane grab machines, and coin pushers, patients with psychotic diseases are theoretically at risk of developing lifetime gambling addictive disorders throughout their lifetime (Parrado-gonzález & Newall, 2023; Wolfschlag & Håkansson, 2023). Because of shifting market conditions, technological advancements, and improved product offerings, the U.K. government has been unable to create rules to reduce the negative effects of lifetime gambling activities on people (Reith et al., 2019; Wardle et al., 2021).

Likewise, a US National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions demonstrated the magnitude of lifetime gambling activities among young people of which the survey revealed that 0.42% of participants were lifetime pathological gamblers (Loo et al., 2019). A qualitative study conducted in Australia found that although gambling is prohibited for children and young people under the age of 18 in many nations, many persons under that age nonetheless partake in it (Pramanik et al., 2019). A law known as the "Dignity Decree" was published by the Italian parliament on August 11 to control the gambling problem. It limited broadcasting for facilities and products related to all types of betting in the Italian region though the trend is still increasing causing addictive gambling behaviors among young people (Okechukwu, 2022b). Findings from the cited academic works may suggest that young people’s lifetime gambling activity is worrying even in rich countries, even though it may not be as severe as it is in low- and middle-income countries. The problem has come to the front headlines in low-and-middle-income countries including Tanzania because it has made students in schools for example spend more time on lifetime gambling activities than concentrating on academic matters (Sichali et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2021)

In the developing world as well, there is a continuing trend of youth gamblers. Even though gambling activities are legally prohibited in one nation and limited to seven others in Sub-Saharan Africa, 25 countries have allowed and dedicated regulators for it, while 16 countries use a government body to regulate it (Sichali et al., 2023). According to the results of a survey conducted in Ghana and Nigeria, the majority of student participants admitted to training institutions, engage in on-campus sports gambling (Okechukwu, 2022a; Wang et al., 2021). Moreover, although technological innovation has provided economic benefits, some researchers have stated that the lack of a secure job is the main cause of lifetime gambling activities among young people in Africa. As a result, there aren’t many services and initiatives intended to reduce it (Opoku & Yeboah, 2021). In a survey conducted in Malawi, it was found that 63.3% of the sample population preferred sports gambling and that the sources through which the youth learned about lifetime gambling activities were their peers, the media, and the internet (Bitanihirwe et al., 2022).

Tanzania, one of the economically emerging nations, is not spared from the problem of the expanding tendency of lifetime gambling activities among young people. According to a survey carried out in higher education institutions in Tanzania, the majority of sports gamblers were young people, accounting for 37.2% of the student participants. Their motivations included a lack of money, a love of sports, and enjoyment while some young people perceived engaging in lifetime gambling activities as a recreation like drinking alcohol (Mfinanga & Bushibura, 2021; Nelson, 2021). Additionally, a study conducted in Dar es Salaam concluded that rather than focusing on academic subjects in school, most gamblers value lifetime gambling activities and build expectations about winning opportunities to transform their lives, a trend that leads most of them to compromise their academic performances and achievements (Nelson, 2021).

The Tanzanian Gaming Act states that it is illegal for anyone under the age of 18 to do any of the following: (a) linger in the gaming area of a casino; (b) sit at a gaming table, slot machine, or other areas where gaming is conducted; or (c) participate, play, be allowed to play, place bets, or collect winnings from any gaming activity, whether personally or through an agent. Anyone who violates any of the terms of this section is guilty of violating it, and anyone over the age of 18 who permits or encourages a person under the age of 18 to engage in an act that is prohibited by subsection one is also guilty of violating it. If individuals are found guilty, they could face a fine of at least 500,000 T.shs. a term of imprisonment of at least three months, or both. Despite governmental and non-governmental agents’ efforts against lifetime gambling activities especially among young people, the trend has continued.

The existing body of knowledge about lifetime gambling activities and behaviors has taken into account fewer efforts in evaluating gambling’s characteristics, drivers, and impacts among students in Tanzanian training institutions. Furthermore, little has been documented regarding the magnitude, beliefs, and factors associated with undergraduates’ propensity for lifetime gambling activities in the country. According to some earlier scholarly works, a demand for study reports on addictive behaviors seems timely and extremely important to establish baseline data for large-scale educational interventions about the economic and academic consequences of lifetime gambling activities among young people including students (Brambilla, 2019). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the attitudes, self-reported practices, types, and driving forces behind lifetime gambling activities among undergraduate students in the Dodoma region the central part of Tanzania.

Methods and Materials

The basic foundation for the study was the criteria and requirements for the institution’s undergraduate and graduate programs that demand researchers to adhere to the research ethics, and it conforms to these standards while taking ethical considerations into account to meet all applicable national and international research standards (Essau, 2022).

Study Area

The purpose of this study was to collect data from undergraduate students in higher education institutions in the Dodoma region. Tanzania’s capital city is Dodoma, located in the country’s geographic center. Dodoma has 3,085,625 residents, according to National Bureau statistics from the 2022 Tanzania census (UDOM, 2019). Dodoma has recently been named and assigned to house all government functions, including the legislature and several ministries. Women constitute a sizable portion of the population in the Dodoma region. Dodoma was purposefully chosen because it has higher education institutions with more students. The undergraduate population must receive special attention because they will make up tomorrow’s workers, leaders, and employees. Dodoma is also a city that is currently experiencing rapid growth and a variety of academic activities that are tailored well to the scope and intention of this study.

Study Design

This study adopted an institutional-based cross-sectional design. As used by other scholars (Haramba, 2024; Millanzi, 2021; Millanzi & Sarier, 2023; Millanzi et al., 2021, 2022a, 2022b, 2023; Yustus et al., 2024) a quantitative research approach was employed to measure the attitudes, practices of lifetime gambling activities, types of lifetime gambling games, and driving forces behind lifetime gambling behavior among undergraduate students in the Dodoma region. A cross-sectional studies helped in determining the prevalence and association between the variables under study. The concept was ideal for this study because it would be carried out at a specific time for little to no additional cost. To determine the prevalence and association between the variables under research, a cross-sectional studies assisted in linking several variables at the same time. From June to July 2023, all procedures were carried out following institutional undergraduate policies and guidelines as well as the suggestions made by the Helsinki Declaration for national and international research ethics.

Target Population

Undergraduates were the study’s population. Undergraduate students currently make up a substantial portion of every town in Tanzania. Due to their significance to the community and the nation as a whole, this group has gained popularity. Undergraduates are a group of people who are anticipated to work for the government, public institutions, and nongovernmental groups, and even some may open their businesses.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Undergraduates who provided written informed consent and were enrolled in higher education institutions within the Dodoma Municipal Council participated in the study. Participants who reported having communication-impairing health issues or were recruited for other studies were excluded from the study.

Sample Size Determination

As proposed by previous studies (Millanzi et al., 2020, 2023, b, c; Mwanja et al., 2023; Shitindi et al., 2023) determination of sample size for this study, the Cochran formula for sample size determination was used (URT, 2022). Which is as follows:

$$\text{Sample size}\left(\text{n}\right)=\frac{{\left(Z_{1-\frac{\alpha }{2}}\right)}^2\left(\text{P}\right)\left(\text{q}\right)}{e^2}$$ 1

whereby $Z_{1-\frac{\alpha }{2}}$ is the standard value for the corresponding level of confidence

P is the expected prevalence based on the previous research

q = 1-p

e is the margin of error precision

Regarding a study conducted about the lifetime pathological gambling behavior (addictive activities demonstrated by an individual towards an object, phenomenon, or situation) the proportion (p) was 57.9%, $Z_{1-\frac{\alpha }{2}}$ is a constant of 1.96 and e is 5% (Millanzi et al., 2021).

$$\text{Sample size}=\frac{{\left(1.96\right)}^2\left(0.579\right)\left(1,-,0.579\right)}{{0.05}^2}$$

Based on the solution to the aforementioned sample size formula, the sample size of this study was 374 undergraduate students.

Sampling Size Technique

Sampling procedures in this study were benchmarked from some previous scholarly works (Haramba et al., 2023; Salim et al., 2022). Dodoma region was sampled purposely among all of Tanzania’s regions because there have been few studies conducted in the region on lifetime pathological gambling habits among undergraduate students and has higher training institutions to access them. Two out of six training institutions were sampled using a simple random selection procedure by lottery method, and a stratified sampling technique was used to establish strata at the level of classes (year of studies). To sample undergraduate students, a simple random sampling technique using a random number table was performed.

Data Collection Procedure

Undergraduate students from the sampled training institutes who agreed to participate in the study provided information about the variables under study, which was collected by principal investigators and trained research assistants. A separate unoccupied venue available in the respective training institution was used for data collection activities. An independent chair with a sitting arrangement that was approximately one meter apart was used to prevent study participants from copying and pasting responses and to assure privacy. The research assistant distributed the questionnaires and oversaw the entire data collection procedure. The principal investigator had to oversee, provide general guidance, address any ambiguities, and secure the information from the study participants. Study participants, data collectors, and data analysts were blinded to the objectives of the study to control the selection and information biases.

Data Collection Tools

The procedures of developing and validating data collection tools borrowed ideas from some previous scholarly works known as the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) (Katayama et al., 2022; Millanzi, 2021; Millanzi et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2023; Yustus et al., 2024). To assess undergraduate students’ lifetime gambling practices, attitudes toward lifetime gambling activities, and motivations behind lifetime gambling activities in the selected training institutions within the Dodoma Municipal Council, Tanzania, the study employed interviewer-administered structured questionnaires from previous studies (Ferris & Wynn, 2001; Sturgis & Kuha, 2022; Wejbera et al., 2027). The tool had three parts: Part "A" for sociodemographic characteristics profiles of the study participants including age; sex; occupation; year of study; program of study; exposure to media; social groups; social platforms and drug abuse and marital status; (n = 11 items); Part "B" for the attitude toward lifetime gambling activities (n = 15 items) assessed in a 5-points Likert scale ranging from strongly agree = 5; agree = 4; neutral = 3; disagree =2; and strongly disagree = 1. Part "C" for practices and types of lifetime gambling games of which participants were asked a set of questions asking whether they had gambled in the past twelve months at the time of this study (n = 10 items). As recommended by the aforementioned previous scholars, responses to assess a range of lifetime gambling activities ranged from never = 0; sometimes = 1; most of the time = 2; almost always = 3. The items for lifetime pathological gambling practice included not limited to “Have you ever gambled in the past 12 months?; What type of lifetime gambling activity have you ever gambled?; how frequently do you gamble? Just to mention a few.

Validity

The content validity of this study was ensured by adapting research tools from relevant and reliable previous scholarly works (Shitindi et al., 2023). The tool was shared with research experts and colleagues so they could offer comments and adjustments regarding its appropriateness, language, content, and organization. The tool was then translated into Swahili to make sure the text was understandable and succinct to the study participants.

Reliability

Considering some recommendations from previous studies (Hajjar, 2018; Livazović, 2022; Millanzi et al., 2020, 2023c; Mwanja et al., 2023; Sharma et al., 2019; Taber, 2017), a pre-test of the research tools was conducted by the principal investigators and the trained research assistants in a geographical location different from the sampled study setting. The content, language, answerability, difficulty levels, and completion duration of filling out the questionnaires were pre-tested. To determine the critical outcome factors, an exploratory factor analysis was performed on the pretest results. With a Kaiser Mayer Oklin (KMO) > 0.5 and a significance level for Bartlett’s test of < 0.05, this analysis examined the weight, sufficiency, and significant association of each item. The instruments’ internal consistency was then examined using a scale analysis of which the tool demonstrated a Cronbach’s α of 0.82. As suggested by previous scholars, the too was considered reliable for the actual data collection (Salim et al., 2022; Shitindi et al., 2023).

Variable Descriptions

The study’s dependent variable was lifetime gambling practices among undergraduate students in Dodoma region’s higher training institutions, in Tanzania. The independent variables were their attitudes and sociodemographic profiles. In this study, attitude was defined as the beliefs or values students placed on gambling activities, either positively or negatively. Examples of these beliefs included the notion that gambling is bad behavior during studies (low attitude), good behavior during studies (high attitude), and unable to say whether lifetime gambling activities are bad or good behaviors (undecided). The act of undergraduate students engaging in any lifetime gambling activity studied, spending more time and finance for lifetime gambling activities neglecting studies and/or practicing any lifetime gambling game, whether once or more, during the past 12 months (One year) before this study was defined as self-reported lifetime gambling practice.

Variable Measurements

The attitudes of undergraduate students towards lifetime gambling activities were measured by 15 items using a five-point Likert scale, with 1 value being a strong disagreement and 5 representing a strong agreement. To establish three endpoints for analyzing attitude (Low, high, and undecided), a new categorical variable was computed using the median measure of central tendency. The midpoint for an undecided attitude toward lifetime gambling activities was a neutral response, while the lowest score was regarded as a low attitude and the highest as a high attitude toward lifetime gambling activities among undergraduate students. The self-reported practice of lifetime gambling activity (5 items) and types of lifetime gambling games (5 items) were measured using ten items, which intended to assess engagement of participants in any lifetime gambling activity studied and/or practicing any lifetime gambling game. The total score for lifetime gambling practice was the sum of the individual items, which for descriptive purposes were then categorized as “0 = Non-gambler”; “1–2 = Low-risk gambler”; 3−7 = Moderate-risk gambler” and “ ≥ 8 = gambler”. The dichotomization of item responses of lifetime gambling practice (“Yes”/”No” responses) was established to make a statistical conclusive statement about lifetime gambling practice of which a value of “1” was assigned to the “Yes” response meaning that the student reported that has had gambled one among the listed types lifetime gambling games and thus, has lifetime gambling behavior otherwise, not.

Data Analysis Plan

All data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) computer software program version 25, which was widely accessible and available at the sampled training institution. First, the data were cleaned up and a normality test was used to ensure that the data were accurate, complete, and correct. The frequency and proportions of the study participants’ demographic feature profiles, as well as the independent and dependent variables (attitude and lifetime gambling habits), were ascertained by descriptive analysis. The regression analysis model used the 95% confidence interval and a 5% threshold of significance as statistical bounds to find the association between the variables. The following logistic regression model was used to establish the association between the variables (Livazović, 2022; Millanzi et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2019)

$$\left[p=\frac{1}{1+e{-}^{(b_0+b_{1}x)}}\right]\left(\le 0p\le 1\right)$$ 2

whereas; Ƥ: the predicted probability of an outcome

e: Exponential

b_0: Constant value

b₁: Slope

x: predictor variable

Ethical Considerations

Ethical clearance The University of Dodoma Institutional Research Review Ethical Committee (IRREC) granted ethical permission to conduct this study. The Dodoma region's authorities, particularly the Dodoma District Council’s executive offices, approved access to the sample higher training institutions and the study population.

Informed consent A suggested by some previous scholars (Haramba et al., 2023; Millanzi et al., 2020, 2023c, 2023, 2023e, 2023f; Mwanja et al., 2023; Nyampundu et al., 2020; Shitindi et al., 2023), to get written informed consent, study participants were given a brief explanation of the aims, advantages, their roles during the investigation, and any potential risks related to taking part in it. Study participants were allowed to choose whether to participate in the study or not after reading the consent form. They also had the option to withdraw from the study at any time after it started, with written justification. The study participants received no material or financial compensation for their participation in this study.

Confidentiality and privacy The lead investigator provided anonymous identifying codes to every data and stored them securely. To maintain secrecy, codes rather than participant names were used in the questionnaires. A separate unoccupied venue available in the respective training institution was used for data collection activities. An independent chair with a sitting arrangement that was approximately one meter apart was used to prevent study participants from copying and pasting responses and to assure privacy.

Results

As shown in Fig. 1, 583 participants were eligible to participate in the study. However 209 of them were excluded due to various reasons including not meeting the inclusion criteria (n = 137), being recruited by other projects/activities (n = 43) and reported health problems that would impair communication during data collection process (n = 29). Nevertheless, the study had a 100% response rate among 374 studied undergraduate students.

Fig. 1.

A sampling diagram of the study participants (n = 374)

Social Demographic Characteristics Profiles of the Study Participants

The overall Mean age of the study participants was 24 years ± 2.79 of which, 66% (n = 247) participants were aged between 17 and 24 years with a mean age of 21 years ± 2.11 while only 34% of the participants had age ranging between 25 and 42 years with a mean age of 33 years ± 1.08. Male participants accounted for 69.8% (n = 261) and 31.8% (n = 119) of the study participants were in their first year of studies while only 18.2% (n = 68) of them were in their fourth year of studies. As shown in Table 1, 78.6% (n = 294) of the study participants were living on campuses of their respective training institutions. 100% (n = 374) of the study participants owned mobile phones whereas, 96.3% (n = 360) of them reported engaging in any of the social media platforms. Also, all of the participants 367 (98.1%) had mobile smartphones. Students who were smokers accounted for 13.8% (n = 52%) while 31% (n = 116) had the habit of drinking alcohol. 63.1% (n = 236) of the participants reported having visited the institutional library for academic purposes within the last 3 months at the time of this study.

Table 1.

Social demographic characteristics profiles of the study participants (n = 374)

Variable	n (%)
Age in years: overall mean age (M±SD) = 24 years ± 2.79
Age groups
17–24 years (M±SD) = 21 years ± 2.11	247 (66%)
25–42 years (M±SD) = 33 years ± 1.08	127 (34%)
Sex
Male	261 (69.8%)
Female	113 (30.2%)
Year of study
1st yr.	119 (31.8)
2nd yr.	96 (25.7)
3rd yr.	91 (24.3)
4th yr.	68 (18.2)
Accommodation
In campus	294 (78.6%)
Of campus	80 (21.4%)
Marital status
Married	93 (24.9%)
Single	281 (75.1%)
Smoking
Have never smoked	322 (86.2%)
Have smoked	52 (13.8%)
Alcohol drinking
Have never drank alcohol	258 (69%)
Have drank alcohol	116 (31%)
Library attendance
Have attended	236 (63.1%)
Have never attended	138 (36.9%)
Mobile smartphone ownership
Yes	367 (98.1%)
No	7 (1.9%)
Exposure to social media platforms
Have engaged	360 (96.3%)
Have never engaged	14 (3.7%)

Field Data (2023)

Proportional Distribution of undergraduate Students’ Attitudes Toward Lifetime Gambling Activities

Descriptive analysis was performed to quantify participants’ attitudes toward lifetime gambling activities. Results in Fig. 2 indicate that a high proportion of the study participants had a high attitude towards lifetime gambling activities with a belief that lifetime gambling activities were okay to them (59.1%) against 27.3% (n = 102) of those who believed that it was not okay to them to engage in lifetime gambling during their studies. Nevertheless, 13.6% (n = 51) of the study participants were at a neutral point as they were not in a position to express whether lifetime gambling activities were okay for them during their studies or not.

Fig. 2.

Proportional distribution of undergraduate students’ attitudes towards lifetime gambling activities (n = 374). Field (Data)

Proportional Distribution of Self-Reported Lifetime Gambling Practices Alongside Their Types Preferred by the study Participants

Results in Fig. 3 show that 69.0% (n = 258) of the study participants reported having engaged in lifetime gambling activities at least once before the time of this study against 31.0% (n = 116) who were not lifetime gamblers.

Fig. 3.

Proportional distribution of self-reported lifetime gambling practices alongside their types preferred by the study participants (n = 258). Field Data (2023)

Proportional Distributions of the Categories of Lifetime Gambling Activities Among the Study Participants

Descriptive analysis was performed to establish the frequency and percentages of Lifetime gambling categories. As shown in Fig. 4, 47.3% of the study participants were lifetime gamblers followed by 19.2% moderate-risk gamblers and 2.5% low-risk gamblers. However, 31.0% of the study participants were non-lifetime gamblers.

Fig. 4.

Proportional distributions of the categories of lifetime gambling activities among the study participants (n = 258). Field Data (2023)

Proportional Distributions of the Types of Lifetime Gambling Games Preferred by the Study Participants

Figure 5 shows the results about the type of lifetime gambling games preferred by the study participants in this study. Most students preferred online sports betting without money (44.5%) followed by coin pusher (29.4%), poll table (8.0%), slot machines (6.9%), lottery (5.0%), and lotto (3.5%). Pokers were the least type of lifetime gambling games used by the study participants (2.7%).

Fig. 5.

Proportional distributions of the types of lifetime gambling games preferred by the study participants (n = 258). Field Data (2023)

Determinants of Lifetime Gambling Activities Among Undergraduate Students

Binary logistic regressions through [$p=\frac{1}{1+{e-}^{{(b}_0+b_{1}x)}}$]$(\le 0p\le 1)$ was performed to determine factors that motivated undergraduate students to engage in lifetime gambling activities while in school. Results in Table 2 show that undergraduate students had significantly higher probabilities of participating in lifetime gambling activities when they were between the ages of 17 and 24 years (AOR = 1.211; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 0.839, 3.237) than when they were older (25–45 years). Additionally, compared to students living on campus and female students, students living off-campus had a one-time higher likelihood of participating in lifetime gambling activities (AOR = 1.312; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 0.746, 3.177) and (AOR = 1.004; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 0.314, 3.011), respectively. In comparison to their counterparts in the first and second year of studies and those who were married, respectively, being in the third year of studies (AOR = 1.911; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 0.809, 4.201), the fourth year of studies (AOR = 2.061; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 1.066, 6.243), and living alone (not in a relationship or married) (AOR = 1.949; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 0.649, 4.951) were significantly associated with lifetime gambling activities practices among students.

Table 2.

Determinants of lifetime gambling activities among undergraduate students (n = 374)

Variables	COR	p-value	95% Cl		AOR	p-value	95%CI
			Lower	Upper			Lower	Upper
Age groups
17–24 years	2.318	0.012	1.449	5.501	1.211	0.021	0.839	3.237
25–42 years	1
Sex
Male	1.160	0.001	0.561	3.252	1.004	0.010	0.314	3.011
Female	1
Year of study
1st yr.	1
2nd yr.	0.981	0.049	0.204	2.007	0.708	0.071	0.088	1.909
3rd yr.	2.781	0.008	1.020	6.337	1.911	0.028	0.809	4.201
4th yr.	3.008	0.001	2.212	7.175	2.061	0.009	1.066	6.243
Accommodation
In-campus	1
Off-campus	2.514	0.001	1.975	6.153	1.312	0.031	0.746	3.177
Marital status
Single	2.591	0.021	1.092	7.984	1.949	0.034	0.649	4.951
Married	1
Visited the library
Yes	0.521	0.039	0.063	1.973	0.361	0.192	0.035	1.968
No	1
Alcohol drinking
Yes	3.231	0.001	1.879	8.246	2.668	0.019	1.948	7.015
No	1
Smoking
Yes	2.434	0.007	1.040	6.803	1.506	0.042	0.729	4.338
No	1
Mobile smartphone ownership
Yes	3.994	0.014	1.470	7.064	2.017	0.036	1.963	6.558
No	1
Exposure to social media platforms
Yes	2.702	0.006	1.942	6.812	1.291	0.028	1.004	3.604
No	1
Attitude
Undecided	1
Low	1.007	0.051	0.902	2.553	0.910	0.061	0.108	1.899
High	2.866	0.002	1.302	6.114	1.770	0.018	0.904	4.227

Field Data (2023)

COR ≥ 1 and p < 0.05: a positive predictor of the dependent variable when not controlled with other factors

AOR ≥ 1 and p < 0.05: a positive predictor of the dependent variable when it is controlled with other variables. (The results to be reported)

p < 0.05 Significant association between variables

The results clearly showed that students who smoked (AOR = 1.506; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 0.729, 4.338) and drank alcohol (AOR = 2.668; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 1.948, 7.015) had a high probability of engaging in lifetime gambling activities than those who were not abusing drugs. Mobile smartphone ownership and those who signed up for social media platforms like WhatsApp, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, Telegram, and Snapchat, to name a few had a significantly higher chance of engaging in lifetime gambling activities than students without (AOR = 2.017; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 1.963, 6.558) and (AOR = 1.291; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 1.004, 3.604) respectively. Students with high attitudes towards gambling by believing that lifetime gambling activities were acceptable and it was their right to engage in them, had a significantly higher likelihood of engaging in such activities during their studies (AOR = 1.770; p < 0.05; 95%CI: 0.904, 4.227) than those with a low or undecided attitude-belief.

Discussion

A significant proportion of undergraduate students in this study reported that they had been in lifetime gambling activities and some were found to be moderate-risk lifetime gamblers during the past twelve months during the time of this study. However, very few undergraduate students were found to be low-risk lifetime gamblers and the rest were non-lifetime gamblers respectively. This result may suggest that being an independent and adult learner and despite academic policies, many undergraduate students report some lifetime gambling activity that would potentially make them be or become problematic or addictive. Although there were female student gamblers in this study, the majority were male students who preferred online sports betting, coin pushers, pool tables, and slot machine lifetime gambling games. They believed that lifetime gambling activities were “OK” to them as it had nothing to affect their academic performance and achievement catalyzed them to engage in lifetime gambling activities. Some students believed that occasionally winning some money from lifetime gambling activities would help them pay for food, clothing, school supplies, and tuition fees. Some students did not support lifetime gambling activities during their studies believing that they increased rates of bandit groups, robbery, theft, and/or sex work within and outside institutional premises, which in turn would compromise their academic performances and achievements.

The observed results suggest that undergraduate students in the sampled training institution often engage in lifetime gambling activities, and factors such as age, sex, accommodation, year of study, mobile smartphone ownership; drug abuse; exposure to social media; and a belief that lifetime gambling activities were acceptable and “OK” to them, were associated significantly with lifetime gambling behaviors. As suggested by some previous scholars (Abbott, 2020; Stavropoulos et al., 2022; Vuorinen et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2023), undergraduate students are likely to engage in lifetime gambling activities probably because they are in the age of trial and error; lack strict, adequate and prolonged parental supervision and direction; peer pressure; unlimited use of mobile smartphones; unrestricted social media platforms; and the belief that something or some circumstance is beneficial to them regardless of their adverse effects. Students who engage in occasional lifetime gambling activities while they are in their studies may not be aware of the financial and academic consequences for their future career path (Estévez et al, 2023; Nyemcsok et al,. 2022; Vestergaard et al., 2023). They might also be influenced by other external forces, such as copying the lifestyles of others or harboring unrealistic hopes of becoming wealthy and successful in life at some point. It is possible that they lacked self-control when it came to certain behaviors that would affect them.

The problem of lifetime gambling activities among students found in the current study tally with those observed by some other previous studies such as a cross-sectional study among preadolescent students by Vegni et al., (Noble et al., 2022; Millanzi et al., 2023) in Italy, which revealed that most students were gamblers and they engaged in lifetime gambling activities while they were at schools and some in the community. Moreover, tallying with the results observed by some previous scholarly works (Millanzi et al., 2023e, 2023f), the majority of students appeared to prefer lifetime gambling games such as online sports betting without money, coin pushers, slot machines, and poll tables, which may lead them to spend time and money to the neglect of their studies. Parent gamblers, troubles with parents, an increase in age, and online lifetime gambling activities appeared to be the significant factors that influenced compulsive lifetime gambling behaviors among students (Nyampundu et al., 2020). Similarities between the two studies might be attributed to the employment of similar methodology, context of the study, study population, and/or variables under study (Vegni et al., 2019; Vuorinen et al., 2022).

As supported by Cameron et al., (Bastiani et al., 2023) when they described an Economic model of lifetime gambling behaviors in Australia, gambling-related negative impacts may be informed by a cognitive ability of an individual. Although their arguments may not concur with the results of this study on the aspect of cognitive function of students, but they uncovered that most of them engaged in lifetime gambling activities while at school probably because they do not have a better comprehension of the associated financial and academic consequences. Such students may become incompetent in the sustainable development era, where they are expected to stick to their studies by establishing their learning objectives, conduct self-assessments that include an analysis of their strengths and limitations, and disclose their positive, covert actions toward their academic career and life opportunities (Hagfors et al., 2023; Hwang et al., 2022; Kape et al., 2023; Millanzi et al., 2021). Matching of the observations between the two studies might be due to the similarities not only in the context of the study but also in conceptualization and definitions of the variables under study, in this case, lifetime gambling activities and behaviors.

Referring to some beliefs of the study participants in this study, which a large part of them are in line with observations found by some previous studies (Cameron et al., 2022; Hagfors et al., 2023; Hurel et al., 2023), engaging in lifetime gambling activities while in schools may closely linked with increased rates of academic absenteeism, discontinuation from studies, academic failures, criminals, drug abuse, sex works just to mention a few. The aforementioned lifetime gambling-related consequences may imply that students who gamble may become at risk of not achieving their academic career paths, reaching their healthy and safe life potentials, and thus failing to contribute to the economic growth at family, community, and/or national levels respectively (Hurel et al., 2023; Mangat et al., 2023; Millanzi & Sarier, 2023). The results observed in this study and other cited scholarly works highlight the growing prevalence of lifetime gambling behaviors and activities among young people including students in schools that may have negative impacts on their academic careers and life potentials. Moreover, the studies appear to demonstrate a sustainable solution to advocate and serve the young generation who are the future adults.

Conclusion

The results of this study showed that a larger percentage of undergraduate students engaged in lifetime gambling activities while they are in studies of which low-risk gamblers were fewer as compared to moderate-risk and lifetime gamblers. The majority of undergraduate students in this study believed that it was “OK” and timely for them to do so. Their age, year of study, sex, accommodation; drug abuse; exposure to social media platforms, and high attitude towards lifetime gambling activities were associated significantly with undergraduate students’ lifetime gambling activities and behaviors. Consideration of the results of this study will aid in the correct regulation of gambling operations and the development of fresh management techniques by the Tanzanian Gaming and Gambling Committee and the government. Additionally, the results of this study highlight the need for training institutions and related academic organizations to address the issue of undergraduate students’ addictive gambling behaviors to uphold their vision and missions and achieve their goals of ensuring a high level of academic performance. Nevertheless, student in Tanzanian and all over the world may benefit from the results of this study as they may be assisted to understand the magnitude and factors, that drive them into lifetime gambling activities and learn how to manage their lifetime gambling behaviors to perform well in schools. Large-scale institutional-based educational programs about the financial and academic ramifications of lifetime gambling behavior among students during their studies may be able to moderate their lifetime gambling behaviors.

Limitations of the Study

The study was conducted in a confined locality and thus results may not be generalized to undergraduate students of other geographical locations in or outside the country other than those residing in Dodoma region, the central part of Tanzania. The results of this study have to be interpreted carefully since it did not establish a causal-effect relationship between the variables under study. The study moreover, did not use a triangulation approach for data collection and thus, the rigor of dependability, transferability, and or confirmability may have not been addressed accordingly. Nevertheless, the results of this study may need to be interpreted with caution, as students would have faced recall problems remembering and sharing their previous lived experiences about lifetime gambling activities. Having an opportunity to rate oneself is criticized as it may influence someone to under or overrate or report the habits/information of students who participated in lifetime gambling activities. Therefore, attention may be needed when interpreting the results of this study.

Abbreviations

NGO

Non-governmental Organization

SPSS

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

UDOM

University of Dodoma

UK

United Kingdom

US

United States

WHO

World Health Organization

YGAM

Young Gamers and Gamblers Members

Author contributions

G.T.S.: Conceptualization, methodology, resources, original draft & writing .P.Z.H.: Conceptualization, methodology, supervision, original draft & writing, review the final work. W.C.M.: Conceptualization, methodology, original draft & writing, review & editing the final work. The authors have read the work and declare that there was no competing interest under this section of the study.

Funding

The Tanzanian Higher Education Students Loan Board (HELSB), a government financial agency tasked with assisting students in Tanzanian higher education institutions, supports the project. Utilizing registration number T/UDOM/2019/00252, the loan was granted. Parents and family members have contributed additional funds.

Data Availability

The corresponding author will make the datasets readily available at the time of publication via wcleo87@gmail.com or walter.millanzi@udom.ac.tz, as well as via the institutional repository’s website, http://repository.udom.ac.tz.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

According to the authors, there are no competing interests in this area of the study.

Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate

All procedures in this study adhered to the institutional undergraduate policies and standards as well as the Helsinki Declaration’s recommendations for national and international research ethics. In a letter with the approval number MA.84/261/01/62/332, the Institutional Research Review Ethics Committee (IRREC) of the University of Dodoma (UDOM) approved this study. Each respondent provided written informed consent after being fully told about the study’s significance, purpose, the value of participation, the importance of study results to students’ learning, confidentiality, and privacy of the information that would be collected from them.

Consent for Publication

Not applicable.