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. 2024 Sep 27;19(1):45–65. doi: 10.1080/17437199.2024.2402809

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© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.

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Figure 1. — Basic definitions and graphical rules for Directed Acyclic Graphs. Notes. Measurement bias can be visualised using different structures. Interested readers are referred to Chapter 9 of Hernán and Robins (Hernán & Robins, 2020).