Table 1.

Examples of microorganisms found in the lung microbiome.

microorganism	genus	culture	reference
bacteria	Pseudomonas	Pseudomonas species are aerobic, Gram-negative bacteria that can be cultured on various standard laboratory media	[43–46]
	Streptococcus	Gram-positive bacteria that grow well on blood agar, where they typically produce characteristic haemolysis patterns (alpha, beta or gamma haemolysis)
	Proteus	Gram-negative bacteria that can be cultured on standard laboratory media
	Clostridium	Gram-positive bacteria that require specific anaerobic conditions for culturing; can be cultured using anaerobic jars or chambers with media such as thioglycolate broth or cooked meat medium
	Haemophilus	Haemophilus species are Gram-negative bacteria that require enriched media containing growth factors
	Veillonella	Gram-negative cocci that can be cultured in anaerobic conditions using media like blood agar
	Porphyromonas	Gram-negative bacteria that require enriched, anaerobic culture conditions, often using blood agar supplemented with hemin and vitamin K
	Ralstonia	Gram-negative bacteria that can be cultured on standard laboratory media like nutrient agar	[47]
	Bosea	Gram-negative bacteria that can grow on various standard media under aerobic conditions	[47,48]
	Enterobacteriaceae	Gram-negative bacteria (e.g. Escherichia, Klebsiella) that are easily cultured on a variety of media, such as MacConkey agar, nutrient agar and blood agar	[47,49]
	Methylobacterium	Gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that can grow on standard media like nutrient agar, often with low concentrations of methanol as a carbon source	[47,50]
fungi	Candida	fungi that grow well on Sabouraud dextrose agar and can be cultured from clinical specimens like blood and mucosal surfaces	[51,52]
	Saccharomyces	yeasts that grow well on a variety of laboratory media, such as yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) agar	[53]
	Penicillium	filamentous fungi that can be cultured on media like Sabouraud dextrose agar or potato dextrose agar	[52,54]
	Aspergillus	filamentous fungi that grow well on Sabouraud dextrose agar or potato dextrose agar	[55,56]
	Davidiellaceae	can be cultured on fungal growth media	[57,58]
	Eurotium	fungi that can be cultured on media such as Sabouraud dextrose agar or malt extract agar	[52,54]
viruses	Paramyxoviridae	family includes viruses, such as the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which require living cells (e.g. mammalian cell cultures) for propagation	[59]
	Picornaviridae	family includes viruses like rhinoviruses, which must be grown in specific cell cultures	[60,61]
	Orthomyxoviridae	family includes influenza viruses, which require cell culture systems (e.g. chicken embryos or mammalian cell lines) for growth	[62]
	Alpha papillomavirus	require living cells and specific conditions to replicate	[63]