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. 2025 Mar 6;23:174. doi: 10.1186/s12951-024-03006-1

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 7 — Histopathological examination of rat’s urothelial mucosa. (I) Normal bladder tissue (no infection and no treatment), x100 magnification. (II) Normal bladder tissue, x 400 magnification. (III) Bladder urothelium in the infected control group with chronic inflammation (C) in lamina propria, and urothelium desquamation (↑), x 400 magnification. (IV) Bladder urothelium in the infected control group showing dilated, congested blood vessel (BV), and mild fibrosis (wavy arrow). (V) Urinary bladder of rat treated with amikacin showing moderate inflammation in lamina propria, desquamation of urothelium (↑), mild fibrosis (wavy arrow) and congested blood vessels (BV), x 400 magnification. (VI) urinary bladder of rosemary oil treated rat showing many inflammatory cells beneath to urothelium, small congested blood vessel (BV) and Intact urothelium, x 400 magnification. (VII) urinary bladder of CS nanophytosomes treated rat showing significant improvement with well-defined urinary bladder architecture and some inflammatory cells in lamina propria, x 400 magnification