. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Jan 1.

Published in final edited form as: Diabetes Obes Metab. 2024 Oct 21;27(1):328–337. doi: 10.1111/dom.16021

TABLE 2.

Odds ratios (ORs) from unadjusted and adjusted generalized estimating equation models for anti-diabetic medications.

Outcome	Metformin ever users		Insulin ever users		Sulfonylureas ever users		DPP-4i ever users
	Unadjusted	Adjusted	Unadjusted	Adjusted	Unadjusted	Adjusted	Unadjusted	Adjusted
Covariates	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)
Year
2009	Referent	Referent	Referent	Referent	Referent	Referent	Referent	Referent
2010	1.11 (1.09, 1.13)^***	1.13 (1.11, 1.16)^***	1.09 (1.07, 1.11)^***	1.08 (1.06, 1.11)^***	0.95 (0.93, 0.96)^***	0.94 (0.92, 0.96)^***	1.42 (1.29, 1.56)^***	1.42 (1.29, 1.56)^***
2011	1.14 (1.11, 1.17)^***	1.20 (1.16, 1.23)^***	1.19 (1.16, 1.22)^***	1.18 (1.15, 1.21)^***	0.91 (0.89, 0.93)^***	0.90 (0.88, 0.93)^***	4.08 (3.65, 4.55)^***	4.18 (3.74, 4.68)^***
2012	1.09 (1.06, 1.12)^***	1.17 (1.14, 1.20)^***	1.31 (1.28, 1.35)^***	1.29 (1.26, 1.33)^***	0.84 (0.82, 0.86)^***	0.83 (0.80, 0.85)^***	6.63 (5.93, 7.42)^***	7.13 (6.36, 7.99)^***
2013	1.05 (1.02, 1.09)^***	1.17 (1.13, 1.21)^***	1.46 (1.42, 1.50)^***	1.43 (1.39, 1.48)^***	0.78 (0.75, 0.80)^***	0.77 (0.74, 0.79)^***	7.62 (6.80, 8.55)^***	8.68 (7.72, 9.76)^***
Age (in years) × 10 years	0.81 (0.80, 0.82)^***	0.82 (0.81, 0.84)^***	1.06 (1.04, 1.07)^***	1.00 (0.99, 1.02)	1.04 (1.03, 1.05)^***	1.06 (1.05, 1.08)^***	1.15 (1.13, 1.18)^***	0.99 (0.96, 1.01)
Male	1.00 (0.97, 1.04)	0.99 (0.95, 1.03)	0.95 (0.91, 0.99)^**	0.95 (0.92, 0.99)^*	1.24 (1.20, 1.29)^***	1.24 (1.19, 1.28)^***	1.05 (0.98, 1.12)	0.93 (0.87, 1.08)
Private insurance (Yes)	1.10 (1.07, 1.13)^***	1.10 (1.07, 1.13)^***	0.95 (0.93, 0.97)^***	0.99 (0.96, 1.01)	1.03 (1.00, 1.06)^*	1.01 (0.98, 1.04)	0.92 (0.96, 0.98)^**	1.09 (1.03, 1.17)^**
Medicaid (Yes)	0.92 (0.90, 0.95)^***	0.91 (0.88, 0.94)^***	1.06 (1.03, 1.09)^***	1.08 (1.05, 1.11)^***	0.98 (0.95, 1.01)	0.97 (0.94, 1.00)	0.60 (0.56, 0.64)^***	0.97 (0.88, 1.07)
Comorbidities
Cardiovascular disease	0.80 (0.78, 0.82)^***	0.92 (0.90, 0.95)^***	1.27 (1.24, 1.30)^***	1.22 (1.19, 1.25)^***	1.04 (1.02, 1.07)^***	1.04 (1.01, 1.06)^**	1.17 (1.11, 1.23)^***	1.12 (1.05, 1.19)^***
Liver disease	0.81 (0.78, 0.85)^***	0.82 (0.79, 0.86)^***	1.21 (1.16, 1.26)^***	1.16 (1.11, 1.21)^***	1.02 (0.97, 1.06)	1.03 (0.99, 1.08)	1.06 (0.96, 1.17)	1.03 (0.92, 1.16)
Depression	1.00 (0.97, 1.03)	1.01 (0.98, 1.05)	1.17 (1.14, 1.21)^***	1.16 (1.12, 1.19)^***	0.98 (0.95, 1.01)	1.00 (0.97, 1.03)	1.14 (1.06, 1.22)^***	0.98 (0.91, 1.05)
Dementia	0.49 (0.44, 0.54)^***	0.63 (0.57, 0.70)^***	1.20 (1.07, 1.35)^**	1.01 (0.90, 1.14)	0.68 (0.60, 0.77)^***	0.67 (0.59, 0.75)^***	0.82 (0.65, 1.03)	0.75 (0.58, 0.98)^*
Alcohol/drug use disorder	0.89 (0.86, 0.93)^***	0.87 (0.83, 0.90)^***	1.10 (1.05, 1.14)^***	1.05 (1.01, 1.09)^*	1.00 (0.96, 1.04)	1.01 (0.97, 1.05)	0.68 (0.62, 0.75)^***	0.84 (0.75, 0.94)^**
Chronic renal disease	0.44 (0.42, 0.45)^***	0.49 (0.47, 0.51)^***	1.50 (1.45, 1.56)^***	1.38 (1.33, 1.43)^***	0.97 (0.93, 1.00)	0.96 (0.92, 0.99)^*	1.27 (1.17, 1.37)^***	1.15 (1.05, 1.25)^**

Abbreviation: DPP-4i, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors.

p <0.05

^**

p < 0.01

^***

p < 0.001.