Fig. 1.

Halofuginone (HF) inhibited the Smad3 phosphorylation which was the downstream of the transforming growth factor-β ((TGF-β)) signaling pathway, impeding the transition of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts and fibrosisalso via F-actin augmentation and nuclear factor erythroid derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2) accumulation. MH1: medicago sativa helicase; KEAP1: kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1; BMP: bone morphogenetic protein; ALDH3A1: aldehyde dehydrogenase 3 family member A1; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition.